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176 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psychology
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the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
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Science
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in psychology, the use of systematic methods to observe describe, predict and explain behavior.
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Behavior
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everything we do that can be directly observed.
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Mental processes
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the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experience privately but that cannot be observed directly.
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Critical thinking
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the process of thinking reflectively and productively, as well as evaluating evidence.
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Positive psychology movement
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the push for a stronger emphasis on research involving the experiences that people value, the traits associated with optimal capacities for love and work, and positive group and civic values.
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Structuralism
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an early school of psychology that attempted to identify the structures of the human mind.
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Functionalism
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an early school of psychology that was concerned with the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in individuals’ adaptation to the environment.
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Natural selection
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an evolutionary process that favors organisms’ traits or characteristics that are best adapted to reproduce and survive.
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Biological selection
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a psychological perspective that examines behavior and mental processes through a focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system.
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Neuroscience
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the scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system.
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Behavioral approach
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a psychological perspective emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavior responses and their environmental determinants.
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Psychodynamic approach
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a psychological perspective emphasizing unconscious thought, the conflict between biological instincts and society’s demands, and early family experiences.
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Humanistic approach
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a psychological perspective that emphasizes a person’s positive qualities, capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny.
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Cognitive approach
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a psychological perspective that focuses on the mental processes involved in knowing; how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.
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Meta-analysis
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a method that allows researchers to combine the results of different studies on a similar topic in order to establish the strength of an effect.
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Theory
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a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain certain observations.
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Variable
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anything that can change.
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Operational definition
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an objective description of how a research variable is going to be measured and observed.
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Hypothesis
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an idea that is arrived at logically from a theory. It is a prediction that can be tested.
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Population
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the entire group about which the investigator wants to draw conclusions.
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Sample
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the subset of the population chosen by the investigator for study.
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Random sample
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a sample that gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected.
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Naturalistic observation
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observation of behavior in real-world settings with no effort made to manipulate or control the situation.
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Standardized test
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a test that requires people to answer a series of written or oral questions or sometimes both.
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Case study
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an in-depth look at a single individual; also known as a case history.
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Correlational research
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a research strategy that identifies the relationships between two or more variables in order to describe how these variables change together.
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Third variable problem
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the situation where an extraneous variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two others.
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Longitudinal design
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a special kind of systematic observation that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time.
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Experiment
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a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more variables believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other variables are held constant.
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Random assignment
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the assignment of participants to research groups by chance.
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Independent variable
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the manipulated experimental factor in an experiment.
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Dependent variable
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a factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable.
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Experimental group
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a group in the research study whose experience is manipulated.
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Control group
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a comparison group that is as much like the experimental group as possible and is treated in every way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor.
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Validity
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the soundness of the conclusion we draw from an experiment.
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Ecological validity
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the extent to which an experimental design is representative of the real-world issues it is supposed to address.
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Internal validity
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the extent to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
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Experimenter bias
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the influence of the experimenter’s own expectations on the outcome of the research.
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Research participant bias
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the influence of research participants’ expectations on their behavior within an experiment.
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Placebo
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a harmless, inert substance that may be given to participants instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, and that has no specific physiological effect.
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Placebo effect
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the situation where participants’ expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an experimental outcome.
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Double-blind experiment
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an experiment that is conducted so that neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until after the results are calculated.
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Descriptive statistics
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mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize sets of data in a meaningful way.
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Mean
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a statistical measure of central tendency that is calculated by adding all the scores in a set and then dividing by the number of scores.
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Median
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a statistical measure of central tendency that falls exactly in the middle of a distribution of scores after they have been arranged (or ranked) from highest to lowest.
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Mode
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a statistical measure of central tendency; the score that occurs most often in a set of data.
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Range
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a statistical measure of variability that is the distance between the highest and lowest scores.
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Standard deviation
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a statistical measure of variability that involves how much the score vary, on the average, around the mean of the sample.
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Inferential statistics
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mathematical methods that are used to indicate whether data sufficiently support or confirm a research hypothesis.
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Ethnic gloss
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using an ethnic label, such as “African American” or “Latino,” in a superficial way that portrays the ethnic group as more homogeneous than it really is.
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Nervous system
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the body’s electrochemical communication circuitry, made up of billions of interconnected cells.
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Plasticity
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the brain’s special capacity for modification and change.
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Afferent nerves
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sensory nerves that transport information to the brain.
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Efferent nerves
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motor nerves that carry the brain’s output.
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Neural networks
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networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output.
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
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the brain and spinal cord.
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. It is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
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Somatic nervous system
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the division of the PNS consisting of sensory nerves, whose function is to convey information to the CNS, and motor nerves, whose function is to transmit information to the muscles.
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Autonomic nervous system
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the division of the PNS that communicates with the body’s internal organs and monitors processes such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. It consists of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.
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Sympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body.
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Parasympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body.
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Neurons
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nerve cells that are specialized for processing information. Neurons are the basic units of the nervous systems.
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Glial cells
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cells that provide support and nutritional benefits in the nervous system.
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Cell body
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the part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance.
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Dendrites
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branches of a neuron that receive and orient information toward the cell body; most neurons have numerous dendrites.
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Axon
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the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body to other cells.
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Myelin sheath
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the layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons. The myelin sheath speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses.
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Resting potential
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the stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron.
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Action potential
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the brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon during the transmission of a nerve impulse.
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All-or-none principle
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the idea that once an electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity, it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any of its intensity.
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Synapses
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tiny junctions between neurons, generally where the axon of one neuron meets the dendrites and or cell body of another neuron.
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Neurotransmitters
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chemical substances that carry information across the synaptic gap from one neuron to the next.
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Agonist
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a drug that mimics or increases a neurotransmitter’s effects.
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Antagonist
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a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter’s effects.
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Hindbrain
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the lowest portion of the brain, consisting of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons.
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Midbrain
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located between the hindbrain and forebrain, a region in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain.
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Reticular formation
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a midbrain system that consists of a diffuse collection of neurons involved in stereotypical behaviors, such as walking, sleeping or turning to attend to a sudden noise.
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Brain stem
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the region of the brain that includes much of the hindbrain (excluding the cerebellum) and the midbrain.
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Forebrain
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the highest level of the brain. Key structures in the forebrain are the limbic system, thalamus, basal ganglia, hypothalamus and cerebral cortex.
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Limbic system
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loosely connected network of structures – including the amygdale and hippocampus – that play important roles in memory and emotion.
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Thalamus
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forebrain structure that functions as a relay station to sort information and send it to appropriate areas in the forebrain for further integration and interpretation.
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Basal ganglia
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large clusters of neurons, located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex, that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements.
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Hypothalamus
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small forebrain structure involved in regulating eating, drinking, and sex; directing the endocrine system; and monitoring emotion, stress, and reward.
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Cerebral cortex
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highest level of the forebrain, where the highest mental functions, such as thinking and planning, take place.
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Occipital lobe
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the part of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head that is involved in vision.
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Temporal lobe
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the portion of the cerebral cortex just above the ears that is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory.
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Frontal lobe
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the part of the cerebral cortex just behind the forehead that is involved in the control of voluntary muscles, intelligence, and personality.
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Parietal lobe
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area of the cerebral cortex at the top of the head that is involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control.
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Somatosensory cortex
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area of the cerebral cortex that processes information about body sensations.
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Motor cortex
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area of the cerebral cortex that processes information about voluntary movement.
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Association cortex
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region of the cerebral cortex in which the highest intellectual functions, including thinking and problem solving occur; also called association areas.
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Corpus callosum
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the large bundle of axons that connects the brain’s two hemispheres.
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Endocrine system
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a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products (hormones) into the bloodstream.
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Hormones
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chemical messengers manufactured by the endocrine glands.
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Pituitary gland
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an important endocrine gland at the base of the skull that controls growth and regulates other glands.
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Adrenal glands
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important endocrine glands that are instrumental in regulating moods, energy level, and the ability to cope with stress.
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Chromosomes
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Threadlike structures that contain genes and DNA. Humans have 23 chromosome pairs in the nucleus of every cell. Each parent contributes one chromosome to each pair.
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Genes
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the units of hereditary information. They are short segments of chromosomes, composed of DNA.
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Dominant-recessive genes principle
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the principle that, if one gene of a pair governing a given characteristic (such as eye color) is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant gene overrides the recessive gene. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if both genes in a pair are recessive.
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Genotype
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an individual’s genetic heritage; his or her actual genetic material’s genetic heritage; his or her actual genetic material.
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Phenotype
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the expression of an individual’s genotype in observable, measurable characteristics.
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Stress
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the response of individuals to changes in circumstances, and events that threaten their coping abilities.
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Stressors
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circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities.
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Biological Approach
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This approach focuses on the body, especially the brain and nervous system. Technological advances in imaging the brain have allowed psychological researchers to examine the brain in all its complexity.
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Behavioral Approach
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This approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants. John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner were important early behaviorists.
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Psychodynamic Approach
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This approach emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between biological instincts and society's demands, and early family experiences. Sigmund Freud was was the founding father of of this approach.
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Humanistic approach
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This approach emphasizes a person's capacity for positive growth, freedom to choose a destiny, and positive qualities.
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Cognitive approach
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this approach emphasizes the mental procsses involved in knowing. These psychologists study attention, thinking, problem solving, remembering and learning.
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Evolutionary Approach
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this approach stresses the importance of adaptation, reproduction and "survival of the fittest."
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Sociocultural Approach
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This approach focuses on the social and cultural determinants of behavior. This approach encourages us to attend to the ways that our behavior and mental processes are embedded in a social context.
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B.F. Skinner
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This psycholigist focused on opernt conditioning, fears are learned and and looked at things that could be measured. He emphasized that what we do is the ultimate test of who we are. His approach focused more on experimental research.
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Sigmund Freud
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this psychologist saw much of psychological development as instinctual, he theorized that early relationships with parents are the chief forces that shape an individual's personality. His theory was the basis for the therapeutic technique that he called psychoanalysis. His approach focused more on clinical applications.
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William Wundt
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He founded the first laboratory in 1879, dedicated to searching for the mind's elemental structures, and E.B. Titchener named the approach "structualism."
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William James
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The leading functionalist theorisrt. The functionalist emphasis on adaptive character of the mind fit well with an emerging understnding of Darwin's theory of evolution.
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Physiological Psychology and Behavioral Neuroscience
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these researchers are interested in the physical processes that underlie mental processes such as vision and memory.
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Developmental Psychology
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these researchers are concerned with how people become who they are, from conception until death.
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Sensation and perception
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these researchers focus on the physical systems and psychological processes that allow us to experience the world.
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Cognitive Psychology
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the broad name given to the field of psychology that examines attention, consciousness, information processing and memory.
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Learning
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the complex process by which behavior changes to adapt to changing circumstances.
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Motivation and Emotion
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study how individuals persist to attain a goal and the reward that follow and the brain processes that underlie emotional experiences.
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Personality psychology
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Focuses on the relatively enduring characteristic of individuals.
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Social Psychology
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Deals with people's social interactions, relationships, social perceptions, social cognition and attitudes.
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Industrial psychology
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Main concerns ar personnel matters and human resource management.
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Organizational Psychology
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Examines the social and group influences of the organization.
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Clinical and counseling Psychology
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Most widely practiced specialization; these psychologists diagnose and treat people with psychological problems.
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Health Psychology
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Multidimensional approach to health that emphasizes psychological factors, lifestyle, and the nature of the healthcare delivery system.
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Communtiy Psychology
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concerned with the providing accessible care for people with psychological problems.
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School and educational psychology
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Concerns children's learning and adjustment in school.
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Environmental psychology
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study of the interactions between people and the physical environment.
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Psychology of women
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studies psychological, social and cultural influences on women's development and behavior.
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Forensic psychology
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the field that applies psychological concepts to the legal system.
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Sport psychology
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Applies psychology's principles to improving sport performance and enjoying sport participation.
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Cross-cultural psychology
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study of culture's role in understanding behavior, thought and emotion.
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Mind impacts the body
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the way we think has implications for our nervous system and brain.
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Body impacts the mind
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think differently when our bodies are rested versus tired, healthy versus unhealthy and hot versus comfortable.
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Scientific approach
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being curious, skeptical, objective (by using empirical methods), and thinking critically.
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Collaboration
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Science takes place among a community of thinkers.
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Scientific Method
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1) observing a phenomenon; 2) formulating hypotheses and predictions; 3) testing these hypotheses through empirical ersearch; 4) drawing conclusions based on that research; 5) evaluating conclusions.
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Research settings
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Laboratories and natural settinsgs
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Descriptive research
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1) observation; 2) surveys and interviews; 3 )standardized tests; 4) case studies
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Descriptive statistics
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Central tendency - mean, median and mode - and measures of variability - range and standard deviation.
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Experimental research
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this method involves a carefully regulated procedure that allows researchers to determine whether one variable causes changes in another.
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Ethical research
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obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, debriefing participants and avoiding any unnecessary deception.
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Hedonic Treadmill
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Many of the experiences that might temporarily enhance happiness eventually lose thier novelty, causing levels of of happiness to return to their previous levels.
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Goal pursuit
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enhance happiness without falling prey to the hedonistic treadmill, because goals can enhance our happiness while also allowing us to lead emotionally rich lives.
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Ethics
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Set of values and morals.
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Mind impacts the body
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the way we think has implications for our nervous system and brain.
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Body impacts the mind
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think differently when our bodies are rested versus tired, healthy versus unhealthy and hot versus comfortable.
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Nervous system characteistics
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complexity, integration, adaptability and elctrochemical transmission
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Nervous system pathways
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Three of them are sensory input, motor output and neural networks.
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Neurotransmitters
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chemical messengers that can be inhibitory or excitatory, depending on the nature of the neural impulse.
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Acetylcholine
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neurotransmitter that stimulates the firing of neurons, It is found throughout the CNS and PNS. Alzheimer's patients have an acetylcholine deficiency.
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GABA
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neurotransmitter that is found throughout the CNS. It is involved in one third of the brain's synapses. It keeps many neurons from firing. Low levels of GABA are linked with anxiety.
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Norepinephrine
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neurotransmitter that inhibits the firing of neurons in the CNS, but it excites the heart muscle, intestine and urogenital tract. Stress stimulates the release of norephineprine. It helps to control alertness, too much triggers agitated, manic states, too little associated with depression.
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Dopamine
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neurotranmitter that helps to control voluntary movement and affects sleep, mood attention, and learning. Low levels associated with Parkinson's disease, high levels associated with schizophrenia.
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Serotonin
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neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, attention and learning. Low levels are associated with depression.
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Endorphins
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neurotransmitter that is natural opiate that mainly stimulates the firing of neurons. Endorphins shield the body from pain and elevate feelings of pleasure.
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Oxytocin
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it is a hormone and a neurtransmitters that plays an important role in the experience of love and human bonding..
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Techniques to study the brain
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1) Lesioning; 2) Staining; 3) Electricl recording - EEG; 4) Imaging - CT, MRI, PET scans.
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Medulla
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part of the hindbrain involved in breathing and posture.
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Oxytocin
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it is a hormone and a neurtransmitters that plays an important role in the experience of love and human bonding..
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Cerebellum
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part of the hindbrain involved in motor coordination.
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Pons
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part of the hindbrain involved in aleep and arousal.
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amygdala
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part of the limbic system that plays a role in survival and emotion.
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hippocampus
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part of the limbic system that functions in storage of memories.
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Broca's area
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area of the left hemisphere involved in speech.
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amygdala
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part of the limbic system that plays a role in survival and emotion.
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Wernicke's area
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area of the left hemisphere involved in comprehending language.
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Left brain (hemisphere)
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dominant in processing verbal information.
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Right brain (hemisphere)
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dominant in processing non-verbal information - spatial perception, visual perception and emotion.
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Three ways in which a damaged brain can repair itself.
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collateral sprouting, substitution of function, neurogenesis.
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brain grafts
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implants of healthy tissue into damaged brains.
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three methods of studying heredity's influence
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molecular genetics, selective breeding and behavior genetics.
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Self talk
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soundless mental speech we use when we think, plan and solve problems.
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Lateralization
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division of labor between the two cerebral hemisphers.
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