Psycholgoy 2

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busy branching fibers, recieve incoming messages, conduct impulses toward cell body

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dendrite

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single extended fiber, ending in branching terminal buttons; messages sent to other neurons or glands

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axon

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a neural impulse, a brief electical charge that travels down an axon. generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in an dout of channels in the axon's membrane

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action potential

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the level of the sitmulation required to tirgger a neural impulse

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threshold

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tiny gap between an axon terminal and another neuron (or sepecialized cell) firing neurons release neurotransmitters that cross the synapse

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synapse

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after crossing the synpase, the neurotransmitter is

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reuptaken or degraded

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important for learning, memeory, muscle movement

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acetlycholine

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influences mood and regulated food intake; depression

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serotonin

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importnat to movement and to frontal lobe activity; schizophrenia

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dopamine

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part of brian that produeces dopamine

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subtantia nigra

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treats patients with parkinson's disease, treating tremors and can lead to schizophrenic symptoms

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L Dopa

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the body's speedy, electrochemical communicaiton system that consists of all the nerve cells of hte peripheral and central nervous system

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nervous system

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the brain and spinal cord

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central nervous system (CNS)

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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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peripheral nervous system

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the part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)

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autonomic nervous system

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division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

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sympathetic nervous system

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division of hte autonomic nervous system that calms the body conserving its energy

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parasympathetic nervous system

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regulates heart rate and breathing

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medula

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links to cerebellum, affects arousal, dreaming

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pons

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balance, coordination, movement

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cerebellum

Front 21

a critical relay station to higher brain centers

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thalamus

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controls appeptites and homeostasis

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hypothalamus

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contain the auditory cortex, Wernickes area, associations related to auditory stimuli

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temperal lobes

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contain the visual cortex, associations related to visual stimuli

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occipital lobes

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contains the somatosensory cortex, associations related to spatial orientation

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parietal lobes

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contain controls for speech production, thinking, planning, reasoning, impulse control, motivation

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frontal lobes

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after Phineas Gages ________ were destroyed in a blasting accident, his ability to plan, limit impulses, and reason were destroyed

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frontal lobes

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area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movemtns

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motor cortex

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area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body senastions

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sensory (somatosensory) cortex

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an area on the left frontal lobe that directs muscle movements involved in speech

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broca's area

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an area of hte left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension

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wernicke's area

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language mostly resides on this side of the brain

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left

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impairment of langauge, ususally caused by left hemisphere damage either to broca's area (impaired speaking) or to wernicke's area (impaired understanding)

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aphasia

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brains waves are studied by placeing electrodes on the scalp. when neurons fire, they produce electrical fields and researchers can record electrical activity in repsone to certain stimuli

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EEG

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small amoutns of radiation are injected into the blood and tracked. the area of hte brian that is active uses more blood. the radiation shows up on brain images

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PET

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recieving physical stimulation and encoding it into the nervous system

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sensation

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the process of interpreting and recognizing sensory informaiton, the act of understanding what the sensation was

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perception

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light enters the eye through the ______

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cornea

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the ____ and the ____ help to focus the light

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cornea and lens

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the ______ contians special cells that transform light to nerve impulses claled rods and cones

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retina

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mostly in the periphery. more light sensitive. detect light and dark. take 20-30 min to fully adapt to darkness

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rods

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mostly in the fovea. less light sensitive. detect colors. have best detail vision. adapt fully to darkness in 2-3 min

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cones

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one color of a pair inhibits the perception of the other color

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opponent process theory of color vision

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color sensors in our eyes respond to the different wavelengths (long, medium and short)

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trichromatic theory of color vision

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defect in the curvature of the cornea or the lens, causes blurred vision

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astigmatism

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cloudy part of the lens which blurs and distorts vision. about 70% of americans over 75 have it.

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cataract

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sensing molecular movements in a medium

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hearing

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determined by frequency

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pitch

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determined by amplitude

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loudness

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complexity of the sound (number of component waves involved in it)

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timbre

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Three things that allow a person to hear

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-eardrum moves in response to virations
-3 bones in the middle ear move
-the basilar membrane vibrates
-haris in the basilar membrane trigger nerve impulses

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1 of the 2 major neural pathways passing through the thalamus is important for _____

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memory

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1 of the 2 major neural pathways passing through the limbic system is important for _____

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emotions

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children have ____ taste buds than adults

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more

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the smallest magnitude of a stimulus that can be detected. needed to be able to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

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absolute threshold

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candle flmae is seen at 30 miles on a clear dark night

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vision absolute threshold

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tick of a watch under quiet conditions at 20 ft

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hearing absolute threshold

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one teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water

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taste absolute threshold

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one drop of perfume diffused into the entire volume of a large apartment

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smell absolute threshold

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wing of a fly or bee falling on you cheek from a distance of 1 cm

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touch absolute threshold

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three processes of perception

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selection, organization, interpretation

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brain sorts out and attends only to important messages from the senses. influenced by pyschological factors like needs, desires, expactioants...

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selective attention

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how we ______ stimuli to percieve form, constancies (shape and size), and depth

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organize

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emphasize the importance of perceiving the whole stimulus, rather than perceiving the different parts as being speparate

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gestalt principles

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elements close together will be percieved as related

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proximity

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understanding that an object maintains shape, even though it appears to change shape (when viewed from different angles)

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shape constancy

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understanding that an object maintains that same size despite differences in distance

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size constancy

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perceptions of how close or far things are from us in three dimensional space

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depth perception

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arise from both eyes working together

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binocular cues

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slight difference between the images striking the retinas of both eyes

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binocular disparity

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mental processing guided by context and/or knowledge stored in memory. aka "conceptually driven"

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top-down processing

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mental processes guided by sitmulus information. also referred to as "data driven"

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bottom-up processing

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knowing where your body is located in space

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kinesthetic sense or kinethesis

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balance and movement, uses the fluid in the inner ear to sense position, implicated in motion sickness

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vestibular sense

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controlled by medicine that acts on receptors in the brain, can also be moderated by relaxation and hypnosis. both topdown and bottomup perception

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pain

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the awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment

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consiousness

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the internal process people use to set priorities for mental functioning. we use it to selectively focus on parts of the environment while ignoring other parts

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attention

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sleep patterns follow natural ________ Rythm

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Circadian

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our biological clock controlling the cyclical body rythms. controls arousla level, metabolism, heart rate and body temp

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cicardian rythms

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our "biological clock" is controlled by a tiny tear-drop cluster of cells in the hypothalamus called the

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superchiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

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this man stayed awake form 453 hours and 40 min sitting in a rocking chair in 1986

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Robert McDonald, Cali

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persistent problems in falling or staying asleep

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insomina

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uncontrollable sleep attacks, sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inappropriate times

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narcolepsy

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characterized by temporary lack of breathing during sleep and consequent mementary reawakenings

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sleep apnea

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high arousal-appearance of being terrified, usually stage 4 within 2-3 hours of falling asleep

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night terrors

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sleep serves as an important recuperative function

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repair/resotoration theory

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sleep evolved so humans and animals could conserve energy when not foraging for food or seeking mates. serves to keep animals still when predators are active

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evolutionary/cicardian theory

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lasts a few minutes, brain slows, breathing slows, more regular, HR slows, easily awakened

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stage 1 of sleep

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lasts about 20 min, sleep spindles, definitely asleep, relatively easliy awakened

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stage 2 of sleep

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lasts a few minutes, transitional stage between light and deep sleep

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stage 3 of sleep

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lasts 30-40 minutes, brain waves change to large slow waves

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stage 4- deep sleep

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lasts few minutes early on, increases during hte night, brain more active, breathing is rapid, HR increases, almost paralyzed, eyes dart around

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REM (rapid eye movement)

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Babies get _______ % of REM sleep

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higher

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increases after stressful experiences or intense learning period, helps memory, may help us to solve problems

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REM sleep

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preserve our sanity by allowing us to gratify forbidden or unrealistic wishes

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Wish-Fullfillemnt Theory (dreaming)

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the surface contnent of a dream, containing dream symbols that distort and diguise the true meaning of the dream

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manifest content

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the true, unconscious meaning of a dream. modern psychodynamic theorists believe this can be a form of a wish or a fear

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latent content

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dreaming is an unimportant by-product of ranodm stimulation of brain cells, cerebral cortex tries to make sense of this random stimulation

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activation-synthesis hypothesis

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dreams help us sift through, sort, and fix in memory our everyday experiences and thoughts-a form of thinking during sleep. could think of it as "mental housekeeping"

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information processing theory

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he used hypnosis to restore the balance of universal fluides within his patients with large magnets

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Franz Mesmer

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a trance-like state, great concentration, high suggestibility, reduced repsonse to outside stimuli

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hypnosis

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most often hypnosis does not improve _______

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memory

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a chemical substance that alters perceptions and alters mood

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pyschoatice drug

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a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms

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physical dependence

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a psychological need to use a drug, for ex. to relive negative emotions

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pyschological dependence

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greater dosages required to achieve same effect, diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose, trajic outcome of tolerance and dependence is addiction, discomfort and distress followed by discontinued use of addictive drug

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drug tolerance

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drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. alcohol, barbiturates, opiates

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depressants

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drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines

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stimulants

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depressant, takes an hour to be absorbed into the blood but effects are felt quickly, .1% blood alcohol content is produced by drinking 1 drink/40lbs of body weight in one hour

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alochol

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not a stimulant but behaviorla effects are similar. blocks reuptake dopamine, norepinepherine and serotonin. stimulates dopamine synapses

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cociane

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a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience; meeting associations and seeing contingencies

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learning

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learning involves the formation of associations and detecting patterns between ___ and a ____

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stimulus and response

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the ability to modify future behavior as a result of past experience is _________

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adaptive

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Russian phsyiologists who was interested in the way behavior is conditioned by association. conducted experiments to test behavioral responses to stimuli.. set the foundation for classcial conditioning

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Ivan Pavlov

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type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus is associated with a stiumuls that produces a reflexive behavior

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classical conditioning

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fear and anxiety responses are

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classically conditioned

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occurs when the presence of the conditioned stimulus ceases to predict the presence of hte uncoditioned stimulus. doesnt mean response is forgotten.

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extinction

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reappearance after a rest period of a conditioned resposne. follows extinction.

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spontaneous recovery

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behavior followed by reinforcent increases chances of behavior

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operant conditioning

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actions that in some way bring about a pleasurable or favorble response will be repeated

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law of effect

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given with each desired response

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continuous reinforcement

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given with only some of hte desired repsonses

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partial reinforcement

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two things that increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur in the future

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positive and negative reinforcement

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brinign good things to an organism ex: money, praise, food

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positive reinforcement

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taking bad things from an organism ex: removing pain, toothace, hunger

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negative reinforcement

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rewarding succisively closer approximations of desired beahvior, useful for teaching new behaviors

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shaping

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different from reinforcement, DECREASES the probability of a response over time

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punishment

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using a combination of learning techniques to alter behavior, inlcudes token ecnomies and time-outs

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behavior modification

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inovlve giving tokens that are redeemable for desired privileges or objects are rewards, effective as long as rewards continue

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token economies

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involve removing a person form the rewarding situation in response to undesirable beavhior

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time outs

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from the bobo doll experient it was concluded that adults and children learn from _______

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observation

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classical conditioning usually invovles

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involuntary reflexes

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operant condiitoning usally invovles

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voluntary, nonreflexice behavior

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the capacity to preserve and recover information

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memory

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three memory stores

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sensory memory, short term memory(working memory), long term memory

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• Holds info. from the senses for a very brief period
• Each sense has a sensory memory associated with it

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sensory memory

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• Showed people an array of letters very fast
• Too many to remember
• Cued to remember a certain row AFTER seeing the letters
• People could remember almost the whole row
• This showed that people could remember more than they could report.

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sperlings procedure- iconic memory

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– activated memory that holds a few items briefly
– lasts up to about 30 seconds.
– e.g., the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

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short term memory

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• Increases the amount you can remember.
– organizing items into familiar, manageable units

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chunking

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• How material is presented can determine how well you will remember the items.

• Memory researchers believe that because items at the beginning and the end of the list stand out more, these are easier to remember.

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serial position curve

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• More modern view of STM
• Made up of three ____________ systems
– Auditory rehearsal system
– Visual-spatial scratch pad
– Episodic buffer

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working memory

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• This component was proposed to account for storage of “multi-modal” information.
• Research is very new but supports this addition.

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episodic buffer

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– the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
– further divided into procedural and declarative memory
– Declarative memory is further divided into episodic and semantic memory

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long term memory

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episodes from your own life- unique to you- part of LTM

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Episodic

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factual knowledge- can be shared by others-part of LTM

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Semantic

Front 146

• Motorcycle accident at 30
• Has perfectly intact semantic memory
• Has NO episodic memory
• Can look at a photo album of his own life as though it were someone else’s pictures

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Patient KC

Front 147

• Had severe epilepsy
• Normal intelligence, no psychological illness
• Removed his hippocampus
• He developed severe loss of memory
• Anterograde amnesia- (forward going) could not form any new memories
• H.M. did retain some forms of memory.
• He could learn new procedural skills, but couldn’t remember learning them.

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Patient H.M.

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– retention without conscious recollection
– skills and dispositions
– cannot call to mind but can show evidence of learning.

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implicit memory

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– memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

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• Explicit Memory (same as declarative)

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neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

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hippocampus-

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– measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
– like fill-in-the-blank test

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recall

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– a measure of memory in which the person need only to identify items previously learned

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recognition

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• Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall
• Guides where to look for info
– Context Effects
• memory works better in the context of original learning

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retrieval cues

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What are the three processes of memory

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encoding, storage, retrieval

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– unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space and time, well-learned information, such as word meanings

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• Automatic Processing

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– encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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• Effortful Processing

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• disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

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– Proactive (forward acting) Interference

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• disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

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– Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference

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– memory aids
– especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
– for example, organize your grocery lists by types of food (dairy, things you need to make lassagna, etc…)

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• Mnemonics

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• Visual = iconic memory (about 1 sec.)
• Auditory = echoic memory (about 4 secs.)

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sensory memory

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our ability to speak or otherwise use language to send information

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• Language production-

Front 162

the ability to understand language

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• Language comprehension-

Front 163

• The structure of sounds that can be used to produce words in a language

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Phonology

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the basic building blocks of speech sounds

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• Phonemes

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• How words are arranged in a sentence according to the grammar of a language

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syntax

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the smallest units of meaning in a language.

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• Morphemes

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• The way that language conveys meaning indirectly, by implied meaning rather than literal meaning.

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Pragmatics

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_________ as well as humor and music, rely on right hemisphere functioning.

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• Pragmatics•

Front 169

Chimpanzees and humans share ____ of genes.

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98%

Front 170

• Do eskimos perceive and think about snow differently than non-eskimos? They have so many words for snow!
• Evidence indicates that language does not determine thought

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• Linguistic relativity hypothesis- Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf

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- the tendency to see objects, and their functions, in certain fixed and typical ways

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• Functional fixedness

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make a decision by comparing the _similarity__ of an event in question to the average.

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Heuristics
• Representativeness-

Front 173

base estimates on the estimates_ of which examples come to mind.

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Availability Heuristic

Front 174

• A procedure for analyzing the __relationships__ among test scores to isolate the factors responsible for test performance.-- Spearman

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Factor Analysis

Front 175

stands for general intelligence
• A common factor that contributes to performance on all of the mental tests
→ your performance on math (being weaker subj) and English would be very related.

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g

Front 176

- the natural ability to solve problems; relatively uninfluenced by experience

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• Fluid intelligence

Front 177

knowledge and abilities acquired through experience (e.g., vocabulary)

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Crystallized intelligence-

Front 178

• Analyze internal mental processes to try to determine intelligence, instead of just looking at test performance
• Intelligence reflects, in part, the speed of transmission among neural pathways.

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Cognitive Approach

Front 179

• Analytic intelligence- tend to perform well on standardized tests- high g

• creative intelligence- how well can you cope with a new task? “quick learner”

• practical intelligence- “street smarts”, size up a situation and act accordingly

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Triarchic Theory

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What makes a good test?

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• Reliability- produce similar scores from one test time to the next

• Validity- how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Front 181

• = (mental age/ chronological age) * 100
•1904, French government asked Binet and Simon to develop a way to identify children who would have trouble in school.
• Practical goal- help those identified as potentially having trouble in school

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iq

Front 182

Attempt to reduce cultural content by using culturally-neutral materials and materials requiring non-verbal answers (see next slide)

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• Culture Fair Tests:

Front 183

Nature vs. Nurture
• Twin studies- those identical twins raised in the same households and those raised apart
• IQ scores are quite ______ for identical twins

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