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300 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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1.What is menstrual synchrony and what is the cause?
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Menstrual synchrony is the tendency for women to begin cycling at the same time when they live together and is apparently a response to pheromonal secretions (like those found in underarm perspiration)
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2.Who first described menstrual synchrony and when?
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McClintock 1971
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3. Stern and McClintock (1998) found that women exposed to underarm secretions from women in their late follicular phase (post menses to the day before LH surge) resulted in what?
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3.1. Earlier LH surge (ovulation) and shortening of the cycle
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4. Stern and McClintock (1998) found that women exposed to underarm secretions from women who had just ovulated resulted in what?
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4.1. Delayed LH surge and lengthened cycle in recipient5.
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5. Do all cohabitating women become synchronous?
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5.1. No, factors leading to menstrual synchrony are not fully clear, but a greater number of shared activities may result in greater likelihood of synchrony
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6. Did McClintock (1971) suggest that cycle length may be increased, decreased or become more regular when a woman has contact with males at least 3 times per week?
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6.1. Decreased
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7. Did Burleson suggest that cycle length may be increased, decreased or become more regular with intercourse at least once a week?
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7.1. Cycle length becomes more regular
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8. Extreme stress during the preovulatory phase results in what?
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8.1. Increased cycle length and delayed ovulation
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9. Extreme stress during the postovulatory phase results in what?
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9.1. Decreased cycle length and earlier menses
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10. What is the most commonly used form of contraception overall in the US?
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sterilization
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11. What is the most commonly used form of contraception by women in the US who desire more children?
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hormonal contraceptives
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12. What hormones are contained in hormonal contraceptives?
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12.1. estrogen & progestin or progestin only
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13. What are the ways in which hormonal contraceptives are administered?
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13.1. pills, injections, implantable capsules, intrauterine devices (IUD), vaginal ring, and patch
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14. What are the two actions of estrogen in contraceptives?
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14.1. inhibits ovulation through inhibiting production of GnRH.
14.2. increases the rate of ovum transport through the oviduct |
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15. What is the effect of estrogen in the contraceptive?
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15.1. the synthetic estrogen inhibits GnRH, effectively shutting down the ovary (because GnRH is inhibited, FSH and LH are inhibited) so that it produces very little of its own estrogen (no FSH = no follicle growth; no LH=no estrogen)
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16. What are the five actions of progestin in contraceptives?
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16.1. prevents ovulation by inhibiting LH ad FSH production in the anterior pituitary
16.2. stimulates the production of a thick, pasty cervical mucus. 16.3. inhibits capacitation of sperm 16.4. slows the rate of ovum transport through the oviduct 16.5. prevents adequate build-up of the endometrium such that implantation is unlikely |
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17. What is capacitation?
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17.1. An enzyme-initiated change in sperm that typically occurs inside the woman’s body and is required before fertilization can occur
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18. If a contraceptive contains both estrogen and progestin, what is the net effect of the rate of ovum transport through the oviduct?
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18.1. it is usually slower
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19. Which is more effective: a contraceptive containing only progestin or one containing both progestin and estrogen?
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19.1. both are extremely effective in the 98-100% range
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20. What are the risks of estrogen in contraceptives?
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20.1. increased risk of blood clots, stroke, and heart attack;
20.2. the effect on risk of breast cancer is unclear |
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21. What are the risks of progestin-containing contraceptives?
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21.1. increased risk of cardiovascular disease due to increase plasma lipids22.
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22. What is Yasmin?
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22.1. a combination oral contraception that uses a different progestin that has an anti-androgenic and anti-mineralocorticoid effect
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23. What is a risk associated with Yasmin?
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23.1. the new progestin used can result in elevated potassium levels, which can have adverse effects in someone who already has high potassium levels or who has kidney or liver problems
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24. What are the advantages of hormonal contraceptives?
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24.1. may reduce the risk of ovarian cancer
24.2. non-intrusive; it doesn’t interrupt sex 24.3. easy to use 24.4. highly effective 24.5. reduction of menstrual blood loss 24.6. reduced dysmenorrhea |
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25. What are the disadvantages of hormonal contraceptives?
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25.1. no protection from STDs
25.2. may cause irregular menses or amenorrhea [particularly progestin-only contraceptives] 25.3. reduced estrogen levels may reduce bone density |
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26. What are the two forms of emergency contraception?
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26.1. hormonal and IUD
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27. When must emergency contraception pills be taken in order to be effective?
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27.1. within 72-120 hours of unprotected sex
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28. When must an IUD be inserted to be effective as an emergency contraceptive?
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28.1. within 5 days of unprotected sex
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29. What is involved in the hormonal form of emergency contraception?
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29.1. taking several doses of certain oral contraceptives or higher doses of specific contraceptive hormones
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30. How does hormonal emergency contraception work?
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30.1. prevents ovulation
30.2. changes the rate of ovum or sperm transport 30.3. reduces endometrial buildup, making the endometrium unsuitable for implantation |
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31. If a fertilized ovum has already implanted, will emergency contraception work?
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31.1. no – it only works before implantation
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32. What is the primary side effect of emergency contraception?
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nausea
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33. How is an intra-uterine device (IUD) inserted into the uterus?
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33.1. it is inserted through the cervical os during menses by a medical professional
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34. What is an IUD made of?
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34.1. flexible plastic; some have a metal coating and some contain progestin
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35. How long can an IUD be left in place?
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35.1. 10 to 12 years depending on the IUD
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36. How do IUDs work, and what is added to the ones marketed in the U.S.?
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36.1. Create a localized inflammatory reaction which inhibits implantation
36.2. the ones marketed in the U.S. add direct or indirect hormonal actions. |
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37. What hormone is added to the Mirena IUD?
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37.1. Progestin
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38. What are the contraceptive actions of copper in an IUD?
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38.1. increases inflammatory reaction to the IUD
38.2. decreases sperm viability 38.3. slows ovum transport 38.4. interferes with the actions of estrogen on the endometrium- prevents build up. |
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39. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of IUDs.
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39.1. Advantages:
39.2. 95-99% effective 39.3. non-intrusive (in sex behavior) 39.4. Long term effectiveness 39.5. Disadvantages: 39.6. danger of uterine perforation on insertion and removal 39.7. increased menstrual blood loss 39.8. increased dysmenorrhea 39.9. Increased risk of PID, which can lead to infertility 39.10. May increase risk of vaginal infections 39.11. No protection from STDs 39.12. May increase susceptibility to STDs during first 3 months 39.13. Inflammation may increase risk of infertility |
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40. What substance is absolutely necessary to use with a diaphragm or a cervical cap in order to prevent pregnancy?
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40.1. Spermicide
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41. How effective are diaphragms and cervical caps with spermicide?
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41.1. 80-90%, varies with user
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42. What are some advantages of diaphragms and cervical caps?
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42.1. readily reversible
42.2. reduce transmission of STDs like gonorrhea and chlamydia, may reduce transmission of HIV 42.3. can be inserted before intercourse- doesn’t have to interfere |
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43. What are some disadvantages?
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43.1. must remember to use each time you have intercourse, and add new spermicide to the vagina in between each incidence of intercourse in a bout of sexual activity.
43.2. Must remain in place for hours after sex 43.3. Must be fitted by a trained professional 43.4. Diaphragm- increase UTIs 43.5. Cervical cap- increase risk of abnormal cervical cells 43.6. Latex or spermicide allergy would prevent use |
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44. How does the sponge work as contraception?
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44.1. It is made of polyurethane foam and impregnated with spermicide, and placed near the cervix to kill sperm as they enter the cervix.
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45. Why has there been a renewed interest in the male condom in recent years?
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45.1. Prevents transmission of STIs, including HIV.
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46. How effective is the male condom?
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46.1. 85-90%
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47. What is the difference between a male condom and a female condom?
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47.1. Female condom- only made out of polyurethane, vs. male condom made out of primarily latex
47.2. Female- worn inside vagina by woman 47.3. Female Effectiveness- 70-85%, vs. 85-90% with male condom (harder to use) 47.4. Female- less well known than male. |
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48. What is monitored on a daily basis when using Natural Family Planning or Fertility Awareness?
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48.1. Basal body Temp
48.2. Cervical changes |
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49. When during the cycle does basal body temp increase?
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49.1. just after ovulation as progesterone increases
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50. What does SHOW mean and when does it happen?
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50.1.1.1. SHOW happens before and during ovulation when the woman is fertile50.2. S- Soft- the cervix softens
50.3. H- High- the cervix rises in the body (estrogen causes the uterus to move forward) 50.4. O- Open- the cervical os widens 50.5. W- Wet- cervical mucus becomes slippery and wet |
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51. When using NFP or FA as a birth control method, is it OK to skip one day of monitoring?
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no
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52. What is necessary to use NFP and FA effectively?
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52.1. patience
52.2. assertiveness and self-control 52.3. special training |
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53. How is male sterilization performed?
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53.1. By cutting and clamping, tying, or burning the vas deferens
53.2. Doctor’s office procedure with local anesthetic |
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54. How is female sterilization performed?
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54.1. By cutting and clamping, tying, or burning the oviducts
54.2. Requires general or local anesthesia in a hospital or surgical clinic |
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55. In what group is regret the highest after sterilization?
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55.1. Young women who were uncertain about being sterilized, or who are not committed to having no additional children.
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56. Approximately how many unintended pregnancies end in abortion?
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56.1. Approximately half of all unintended pregnancies end in abortion
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57. Is the risk of death from childbirth more or less than from early abortion?
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57.1. The risk of death from childbirth is higher- 1 death per 5,800 births vs. early abortion versus 1 death for every 530,000 abortions.
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58. What are the 2 main types of abortion?
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58.1. Medical and surgical
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59. How long after the start of the last menses can a medical abortion be performed?
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59.1. The first 49 days from the start of the last menses.
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60. What are the two drugs involved in a medical abortion and how are they administered?
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60.1. Mefepristone (RU 486)
60.2. Misoprostol (prostaglandin) 60.2.1. These are administered in pill form |
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61. Describe how the 2 drugs work in a medical abortion.
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61.1. Mefepristone- anti-progesterone which results in the deterioration of the endometrium
61.2. Misoprostol- causes contractions of the uterus to expel contents |
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62. What must the patient agree to before undergoing a medical abortion and why?
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62.1. to have a surgical abortion if the medical abortion is not effective, because a medical abortion will induce a complete abortion 92-99% of the time.
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63. What are the three types of surgical abortions and when are they performed?
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63.1. -Manual Vacuum aspiration- up to ten weeks after start of last menses
63.2. -Vacuum Aspiration- 6-14 weeks after start of last menses 63.3. -Dilation and Evacuation- used after 14 weeks. Abortion is not used after 24 weeks except when there are serious health risks for the woman |
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64. What is the difference between manual vacuum aspiration and vacuum aspiration abortions?
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64.1. Manual uses a manual device to gently suck out the uterine contents, while a vacuum aspiration uses machine based aspiration with gentle scraping of the uterine walls with a curette
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65. Dilation and Evacuation abortion involved more use of _______ and _______ to remove contents from the uterus.
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65.1. instruments
65.2. suction |
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66. What are the most common psychological reactions of women who have voluntary abortions?
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66.1. mild reaction overall, more distress before than after, relief afterwards
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67. How are psychological reactions different for abortions for medical or eugenic reasons?
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67.1. -medical (health of mother)- often followed by guilt
67.2. -eugenic (health/ development problems with fetus)- often followed by depression 68. What factors have been found to be associated with increased risk of negative outcomes after voluntary abortion: |
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68. What factors have been found to be associated with increased risk of negative outcomes after voluntary abortion:
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68.1. Previous psychiatric problems, mid-trimester abortion, low self esteem, poor prior knowledge of contraception, ambivalence about decision, pregnancy highly meaningful to woman, not making own decision
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69. What do women do if they are denied an abortion and what are the frequencies of each?
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69.1. Seek abortion elsewhere (most)
69.2. Continue pregnancy and keep the baby (6-19%), very few relinquish baby for adoption 69.3. Spontaneous abortion/ miscarriage (4-18%) this is very high, and at a point in pregnancy when miscarriage rates are very low. |
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70. Define open adoption and closed adoption.
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70.1. Open adoptions the woman relinquishing is involved in selecting the family in some way and may receive news of the child via letters or face to face contact after birth.
70.2. A closed adoption is done anonymously through an agency and the woman usually has little contact with the child post birth and does not know anything about the family she is relinquishing to. |
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71. What are two similarities between women relinquishing in an open versus a closed adoption (Lauderdale and Boyle study)?
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71.1. Both report avoiding developing attachment during pregnancy.
71.2. Most relinquish their child due to pressure from others or due to financial problems. |
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72. Women relinquishing in closed adoptions are more likely to ____________ than women relinquishing in open adoptions.
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72.1. Have been pressured by others
72.2. Have less contact with the infant after birth 72.3. Have poorer pre-natal care 72.4. Initiate the search for the child years later. |
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73. Women relinquishing in open adoptions are more likely to _____________ than women relinquishing in closed adoptions.
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73.1. More likely to admit pregnancy to others.
73.2. Desire child to contact them but don’t initiate search. |
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74. In interviews with women who had relinquished their child what were some things they desired to make the adoption process better?
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74.1. The women preferred moderately open adoptions. Of the women who relinquished in a closed adoption most wanted to receive information about their child through the agency.
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75. In current, typically open, adoptions what are the psychological effects of relinquishing a child?
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75.1. Mainly positive, most have no grief and feel relieved
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76. What hormone is measured in pregnancy tests and why are pregnancy tests uncertain in early pregnancy?
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76.1. HCG is measured and is similar to LH so the test is uncertain until HCG levels are higher than LH levels would ever be in a cycling woman
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77. What makes Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)?
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77.1. The fertilized ovum and later the placenta
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78. What does HCG do?
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78.1. Keeps the corpus luteum alive
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79. Where does the placenta come from?
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79.1. The trophoblast of the fertilized ovum and is genetically similar to the fetus not the mother.
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80. How are nutrients/waste transferred across the placenta?
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80.1. Diffusion across a concentration gradient
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81. What major hormones does the placenta produce?
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81.1. Estrogen (estrial)
81.2. progesterone 81.3. Human Placental Lactogen (and a number of other hormones similar to those produced by the anterior pituitary) |
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82. What is unique about how the placenta produces estrial?
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82.1. It can not make estrial from cholesterol so it makes it from androstenedione provided by the fetal adrenal gland.
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83. What does HPL do?
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83.1. increase number of alveoli in mammary glands
83.2. make alveoli functional |
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84. What comes from the ectoderm?
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84.1. Central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and epidermis
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85. What comes from the mesoderm?
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85.1. Skeletal system, musculature, vasculature
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86. What comes from the endoderm?
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86.1. Gut, lungs, liver
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87. During which stage of fetal development is the fetus most sensitive to damage from drugs and other problems?
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87.1. Organogenesis – during the first trimester
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88. What happens to the uterus during pregnancy?
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88.1. Increases in size, increase in size and number of muscle cells, increase in number and size of blood vessels
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89. What is Goodell’s Sign?
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89.1. the softening of the cervix early in pregnancy due to engorgement with blood
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90. What happens to the cervix during labor?
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90.1. It effaces (shortens) and the os dilates
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91. What is morning sickness?
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91.1. Nausea associated with hunger pains (not just in the morning) that is typically worst in first trimester.
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92. What can happen if a woman has high blood pressure during pregnancy?
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92.1. High blood pressure is a condition called toxemia that can develop into pre-eclampsia.
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93. What can result from eclampsia?
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93.1. Convulsions, coma, or death
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94. What does relaxin do?
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94.1. Softens ligament letting joints widen which reduces the risk of broken bones during labor and delivery
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95. What produces relaxin?
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95.1. Corpus luteum and placenta
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96. What is one theory about the cause of labor onset?
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96.1. The aging placenta can no longer produce enough estrogen and progesterone to maintain the pregnancy (drop in progesterone enables coordinated contractions of the uterus).
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97. What are three common signs that labor has begun?
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97.1. release of a small amount of blood with mucus from the vagina (cervical plug)
97.2. uterine contractions at intervals less than 10 minutes 97.3. rupture of amniotic sac (water breaking) |
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98. What is the longest stage of labor, and what occurs during this stage?
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98.1. The first stage is the longest (includes three different phases). During this stage the cervix effaces and dilates to about 10 cm, and contractions increase in frequency and intensity.
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99. What happens during the third stage of labor?
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99.1. The placenta is delivered.
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100. What are the three phases of the first stage of labor?
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100.1. Latent phase (contractions 5-20 min. apart, cervix 3-5 cm.)
100.2. Active phase (contractions 3-4 min. apart, cervix 4-7 cm.) 100.3. Transition (contractions every few minutes, cervix 8-10 cm.) |
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101. True or false: Immediately after birth, the mother produces mature breast milk.
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101.1. False. The breasts produce colostrum, making a transition to mature breast milk after about 30 days.
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102. Is breastfeeding typically an effective form of birth control in the United States?
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102.1. No. A woman only remain non-cyclic and anovulatory during breastfeeding if she feeds the infant on-demand, every day, round the clock, which is very rare in the U.S.
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103. How can a woman tell whether she has gone through menopause?
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103.1. Menopause has occurred if the woman has had no menses for 12 consecutive months.
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104. What happens to women’s estrogen and progesterone levels during menopause?
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104.1. Estrogen and progesterone production from the ovaries is dramatically reduced.
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105. What happens to a woman’s GnRH, FSH and LH levels during menopause?
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105.1. GnRH, FSH, and LH levels become very high.
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106. What happens to sex steroid production by the adrenal cortex after menopause?
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106.1. Hormone production by the adrenal cortex is unchanged. Androstenedione from the adrenal cortex is converted to estrone in fat.
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107. In what way are a woman’s reproductive hormones after menopause the same as they were before puberty?
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107.1. estrogen and progesterone are similarly both prior to puberty and after menopause
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108. In what way are a woman’s reproductive hormones after menopause different than they were before puberty?
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108.1. GnRH, FSH and LH are very low pre-puberty and very high post-menopause.
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109. How is body fat level related to a woman’s estrogen level after menopause?
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109.1. High body fat is associated with higher post-menopause estrogen levels since androstenedione from the adrenal cortex is converted to estrogen (estrone) in fat
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110. What are the benefits and risks of Estrogen Replacement Therapy (ERT)?
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110.1. Benefits: can reduce estrogen-related symptoms of menopause such as hot flashes, genital changes, loss of sex drive, loss of calcium from bones, and risk of cardiovascular disease
110.2. Risks: increases risk of endometrial cancer (so is rarely used for women with an intact uterus) |
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111. What are the benefits and risks of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), which includes both estrogen and progesterone?
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111.1. Benefits: can reduce symptoms of menopause listed for ERT, except for risk of cardiovascular disease
111.2. Risks: increases the likelihood of developing Alzheimer’s, and may increase plasma lipids which increase the risk of cardiovascular disease |
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112. What is the most common symptom that menopausal women experience in the US?
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112.1. hot flashes
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113. What groups of women are at highest risk for developing osteoporosis? …lowest risk?
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113.1. highest risk – Caucasian or Asian
113.2. Lowest risk – African American or Hispanic |
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114. What are some factors that a woman can control to reduce her risk of osteoporosis?
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114.1. Have an active lifestyle (including weight-bearing exercise).
114.2. Avoid taking thyroid hormones. 114.3. Don’t smoke. 114.4. ERT/HRT stops calcium loss (but see risks listed above). 114.5. Non-estrogen treatments, such as Fosomax and Boniva, increase bone density. 114.6. Consume adequate calcium. |
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115. What are some uncontrollable factors that affect women’s risk of osteoporosis?
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115.1. Being Caucasian or Asian.
115.2. Being tall and thin (small-boned). 115.3. Having early menopause (in your 20’s or 30’s) or surgical menopause (removal of ovaries) |
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1. What is the target tissue of ACTH and what does it do?
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1.1. Target tissue: adrenal cortex,
1.2. controls the production and release of the sex steroids (estrogens, androgens and progesterone), the glucocorticoids and the mineralocorticoids |
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2. What is the target tissue of TSH and what does it do?
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2.1. Target tissue: thyroid gland,
2.2. controls production and release of thyroid hormones which control metabolic rate |
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3. What is the target tissue of GH and what does it do?
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3.1. Target tissue: liver, musculature and skeleton
3.2. affects growth rate |
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4. What is the target tissue of MSH and what does it do?
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4.1. Target tissue: melanocytes,
4.2. affects skin pigmentation |
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5. What does BLPH do?
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5.1. precursor from which natural opiates like endorphins is produced
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6. What are the two functions of FSH?
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6.1. stimulates the growth of the ovarian follicles
6.2. Works with LH to stimulate ovulation |
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7. When is FSH most abundant in the menstrual cycle?
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7.1. At the beginning of the month
7.2. at ovulation |
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8. What does FSH do in men?
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8.1. Stimulates the production of sperm
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9. What are the four functions of LH?
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9.1. Stimulates estrogen production by the ovarian follicle
9.2. Works with FSH to simulate ovulation 9.3. Stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum 9.4. Stimulates estrogen production by the corpus luteum |
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10. When is LH most abundant in the menstrual cycle?
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10.1. At ovulation, but generally pretty present all throughout cycle
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11. What does LH do in men?
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11.1. Stimulates the production of testosterone
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12. When is progesterone most abundant in the menstrual cycle?
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12.1. During the postovulatory phase
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13. What are the two functions of Prolactin?
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13.1. Stimulates progesterone production by the corpus luteum
13.2. Stimulates milk production by mammary glands |
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14. Can a woman have excessively high or excessively low prolactin levels and still be fertile?
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14.1. Probably not
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15. What are the two hormones needed in breastfeeding and what are their functions?
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15.1. Oxytocin (produced by the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary) stimulates milk letdown
15.2. Prolactin (produced in the anterior pituitary) stimulates the alveoli of the mammary glands to begin producing milk |
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16. How is the hypothalamus related to the anterior pituitary?
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16.1. The hypothalamus produces hormones called releasing hormones that control the production and release of the tropic hormones by the anterior pituitary
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17. What are releasing hormones and what do they do?
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17.1. Releasing hormones are hormones produced in the hypothalamus which travel through the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system to the anterior pituitary and stimulate and inhibit the production and release of the tropic hormones.
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18. What are the seven releasing hormones (RH)?
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18.1. Corticotropic releasing hormone (CRH)
18.2. Thyrotropic hormone releasing hormone (TRH) 18.3. Somatostatin 18.4. Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) 18.5. Gonadotropin hormone releasing hormone (GnRH) 18.6. Dopamine 18.7. Prolactin stimulating hormone (PSH) |
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19. What does CRH do?
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19.1. Stimulates the production and release of ACTH
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20. What does TRH do?
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20.1. Stimulates the production and release of TSH
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21. What does Somatostatin do?
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21.1. Inhibits the production and release of GH
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22. What does GHRH do?
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22.1. Stimulates the production and release of GH
|
|
|
v23. What does GnRH do?
|
23.1. Stimulates the production and release of both FSH and LH
|
|
|
24. Where is inhibin produced and what does it do?
|
24.1. Inhibin is produced by the ovarian follicle and the corpus luteum
24.2. it acts at the anterior pituitary to inhibit the production and release of FSH |
|
|
25. What does Dopamine do?
|
25.1. inhibits the production and release of prolactin
|
|
|
26. What does PSH do?
|
26.1. stimulates the production and release of prolactin
|
|
|
27. What RH releases two tropic hormones?
|
27.1. GnRH releases both LH and FSH
|
|
|
28. What tropic hormones are affected by two RH?
|
28.1. GH is stimulated by GHRH and inhibited by Somatostatin
28.2. prolactin is stimulated by prolactin stimulating factor and inhibited by dopamine |
|
|
29. In the adult female, how does very low estrogen affect GnRH?
|
29.1. Stimulates the production of GnRH
|
|
|
30. In the adult female, how does moderate estrogen affect GnRH
|
30.1. Inhibits GnRH
|
|
|
31. In the adult female, how does very high estrogen affect GnRH?
|
31.1. Stimulates GnRH
|
|
|
32. What type of feedback system regulates most of the hormonal systems in the body?
|
32.1. Negative feedback
|
|
|
33. What is the feedback loop between FSH/LH and GnRH?
|
33.1. Negative feedback: GnRH stimulates LH/FSH, increased levels of LH/FSH inhibit GnRH
|
|
|
34. When is the one time of the month when estrogen overrides the “negative feedback” system and makes it go to a “positive feedback” loop and why?
|
34.1. Estrogen overrides the system 24 hours before ovulation when the Graafian follicle that is pushing against the ovary sends a signal that the ovum is ready for ovulation by dumping all of its remaining estrogen into the bloodstream. This very high level of estrogen stimulates GnRH release which then stimulates production of both FSH and LH which is needed in order to trigger ovulation. The GnRH level in this case is so high that it overwhelms the effect of inhibin. So, massive release of E→ massive release of GnRH→ massive release of LH and FSH→ ovulation
|
|
|
35. List the Estrogen levels across the monthly cycle:
|
35.1. Levels start to increase on Day 1 and gradually increase throughout the preovulatory phase (because the follicles are growing)
35.2. Surge (sharp increase) 24 hours prior to ovulation. 35.3. Levels decrease after surge (through ovulation). 35.4. Levels rise during the postovulatory phase as the corpus luteum develops. 35.5. Drop off just before menses when the corpus luteum dies. |
|
|
36. List the Progesterone levels across the monthly cycle:
|
36.1. Levels low on Day 1
36.2. Stay very low throughout the preovulatory phase 36.3. Increase during the postovulatory phase with the development of the corpus luteum 36.4. Drop off just before menses with the death of the corpus luteum |
|
|
37. List the FSH levels across the monthly cycle:
|
37.1. Begin to rise at the end of the postovulatory phase.
37.2. Decrease in late preovulatory phase. 37.3. Surge at the exact time of ovulation because of massive surge of estrogen by GnRH. 37.4. Decrease after ovulation and stays low throughout most of the postovulatory phase |
|
|
38. List the LH levels across the monthly cycle:
|
38.1. Begin to increase on Day 1 to stimulate estrogen
38.2. Rise to moderate level and stay relatively steady for the rest of the preovulatory phase 38.3. Surge at ovulation. 38.4. Declines right after ovulation to make CL 38.5. Increases toward the end of the luteal phase and then declines again |
|
|
39. What is the adrenal gland and where is it located in the body?
|
39.1. The adrenal gland is a structure of two simultaneously present independent endocrine glands, the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla, and sits in the abdominal cavity right above the kidney
|
|
|
40. What is the adrenal medulla and what is its function?
|
40.1. Gland (may or may not be an endocrine gland) at the inner core of the adrenal gland that produces adrenaline and noradrenalin in response to stress like being hungry, hot, scared, etc.
|
|
|
41. What is the adrenal cortex and what is its function?
|
41.1. Gland at the outer cortex of the adrenal gland that produces and releases adrenocortical hormones in response to stimulation from the tropic hormone ACTH that is stimulated by the releasing hormone CRH. So, CRH→ ACTH→ adrenocortical hormones
|
|
|
42. What are the three classes of hormones that the adrenal cortex releases and what are their functions?
|
42.1. Glucocorticoids→ controls glucose metabolism and food intake
42.2. Mineralocorticoids→ regulate levels of minerals and electrolytes such as sodium or potassium 42.3. Sex steroids (androgen, estrogen and progesterone)→ various actions on the body |
|
|
43. Are steroid hormones fat soluble or water soluble?
|
43.1. Fat soluble
|
|
|
44. What is the major source of androgen for women?
|
44.1. The adrenal cortex
|
|
|
45. What is the best known and strongest androgen (most prevalent in men)?
|
45.1. Testosterone
|
|
|
46. What is the most prevalent form of androgen in women?
|
46.1. Androstenedione
|
|
|
47. How does androstenedione have a testosterone effect in women without having the overall masculinizing effect of testosterone?
|
47.1. Once androstenedione enters into its target tissue it is converted to testosterone. This way, the testosterone acts only on the specific tissue it is meant for and does not masculinize the rest of the body on its way to the specific target tissue.
|
|
|
48. What are the three actions of androgen?
|
48.1. Controls sex drive
48.2. Controls acne 48.3. Stimulates the growth of pubic and underarm hair |
|
|
49. What is the precursor from which all sex steroids including progesterone, androstenedione, testosterone and estrogen are produced?
|
49.1. Cholesterol
|
|
|
50. Are the sex steroid chemicals and their hormone precursors chemically very different or very similar from one another?
|
50.1. Chemically very similar. In fact, sometimes the receptors for these hormones can get confused by similar hormones and will respond to the wrong hormone. This is why some synthetic hormones, like synthetic estrogen, can have progesterone-like or androgen-like activity in addition to their estrogen-like activity
|
|
|
51. What are prostaglandins and what effect do they have on the uterus?
|
51.1. these are paracrines, meaning they act on tissues very close to their site of production. Women with dysmenorrhea (cramps) have very high levels of prostaglandin in their uteri because the prostaglandins are actually stimulating small contractions in their uterine muscles.
|
|
|
52. Can any drugs inhibit prostaglandins? If so, which ones? When should they be taken?
|
52.1. Over the counter drugs like ibuprofen, aspirin and acetaminophen can be taken to inhibit prostaglandin production by the endometrium but must be taken 2-3 days before cramps start in order to stop the release of the hormones.
|
|
|
53. What role do prostaglandins play in labor?
|
53.1. Prostaglandin levels are high during labor and can be used to stimulate labor along with oxytocin
|
|
|
54. What is the difference between puberty and adolescence?
|
54.1. Puberty refers to the biological maturation of an individual from being unable to reproduce to being able to reproduce while adolescence refers to the social transition in which an individual moves from a dependent, child like role to an independent, adult role.
|
|
|
55. What is the concern about the disparity between puberty and adolescence?
|
55.1. The concern is that girls who reach biological maturity early will face pressures to engage in adult-like behaviors (dating, sex, smoking, drinking) before their decision making and social skills have matured enough to deal with these issues.
|
|
|
56. What do Frisch and Tanner report about the age of menarche?
|
56.1. The age of menarche has decreased over time
|
|
|
What do we know about the relationship between race/ethnity and the timing of puberty/menarche?
|
57.1. Some studies show Latina or African-American girls going through puberty or menarche at earlier ages than Caucasian girls but these findings are controversial. Socioeconomic factors may account for at least some of the differences reported so far.
|
|
|
58. What are Tanner’s five stages of pubertal development?
|
58.1. Start of the adolescent growth spurt
58.2. Thelarche 58.3. Simultaneous adrenarche and peak of the growth spurt 58.4. Underarm hair formation 58.5. Menarche |
|
|
59. What hormone(s) are involved in the adolescent growth spurt?
|
59.1. Estrogen, androgen and growth hormone
|
|
|
60. What is thelarche and what two things occur in this stage?
|
60.1. Thelarche= the budding of the breasts
60.1.1. Areola increases in size 60.1.2. Increased breast fat deposition |
|
|
69. Hormonally, how does body fat influence the onset of menarche?
|
69.1. Because androgens are converted to estrogen in body fat tissue, the more body fat there is the more androgens are converted into estrogen. If estrogen levels get high enough to decrease the sensitivity of the hypothalamus then this estrogen level can stimulate the ovary to produce adult levels of estrogen and thus menarche
|
|
|
70. What is the failure to menstruate?
|
70.1. Amenorrhea
|
|
|
71. What is exercise-induced amenorrhea and what happens hormonally in this stage?
|
71.1. Failure to menstruate as a result of intense athletic or dance training
71.2. GnRH, LH and FSH and estrogen levels are suppressed so ovulation does not occur |
|
|
72. Is exercise-induced amenorrhea reversible? How?
|
72.1. Yes, ending strict athletic/ dance training can cause a return of cyclicity and menstruation
|
|
|
73. What are three causes of exercise-induce amenorrhea?
|
73.1. Low body fat
73.2. Change in the muscle: fat ratio (muscle > fat) as a result of an increase in muscle or decrease in fat 73.3. Nutritional deficit state: energy output > energy input (can be caused as a result of increasing exercise without eating extra to compensate for the energy loss) |
|
|
74. What are the risks associated with amenorrhea?
|
74.1. Loss of bone density as a result of low estrogen which increases the risk of osteoporosis
|
|
|
75. When do eating disorders become most prevalent in the life cycle?
|
75.1. Puberty and adolescence but current data suggest they can occur at any time
|
|
|
76. What is the current argument for why eating disorders occur in some women but not others?
|
76.1. There is a genetic component in certain individuals that is transmitted from parents that predisposes individuals to develop an eating disorder. However, this may be dependent on environmental triggers because while someone may have this trait that predisposes them to develop an eating disorder, they may not necessarily display it unless they are in a specific environment that in conducive to this trait.
|
|
|
77. What does Parlee’s research tell us about women’s moods and behaviors during the menstrual cycle?
|
77.1. Both men and women report that women experience very negative symptoms during the premenstruum
|
|
|
78. What does Ruble’s research tell us about women’s moods and behaviors during the menstrual cycle?
|
78.1. Women convinced that they are premenstrual report more pain and bloating than women convinced they are not premenstrual
|
|
|
79. What was the effect of societal stereotypes about premenstruum on scientific research on mood and the monthly cycle?
|
79.1. Relaxed standards on scientific procedures in the study of mood or behavior and the monthly cycle which led to the publication of many studies that were poorly designed and yielded dubious results
|
|
|
80. In recall studies, what symptoms do women report to be associated with the menstrual cycle?
|
80.1. An increase in negative moods and behaviors premenstrually80.2. And sometimes an increase in positive moods during the follicular phase or midcycle
|
|
|
81. In concurrent studies, what relationships between mood and behavior and the monthly cycle do women report?
|
81.1. More positive moods and behaviors during the follicular phase or at mid-cycle.
81.2. They report no correlation between negative moods and behaviors and the premenstrual phase of the cycle |
|
|
82. Between recall and concurrent studies, which is a more accurate measure of mood and behaviors during the menstrual cycle? Why?
|
82.1. Concurrent studies because by having women keep daily diaries of their moods, behaviors and cycle phases the responses are less tainted by stereotypes of moods/ behaviors
|
|
|
83. About how many women actually experience PMDD as defined by the DSM IV?
|
83.1. 5-10% of the general population
|
|
|
84. Give some examples of physical, behavioral and mood symptoms of PMS:
|
84.1. Physical: breast tenderness, bloating, headache
84.2. Behavioral: sleep disturbances, poor concentration, and social withdrawal 84.3. Mood: Irritability, mood swings, anxiety, depression |
|
|
85. What is the difference between PMS and PMDD?
|
85.1. PMS is a more laxly defined set of symptoms which can include physical as well as psychological symptoms. PMDD is more rigorously defined for research purposes.
|
|
|
86. PMDD can only be diagnosed as such if the person has at least one of four behavioral symptoms. What are they?
|
86.1. Irritability
86.2. Tension or anxiety 86.3. Depressed mood or hopelessness 86.4. Sudden mood swings |
|
|
87. What are the four symptomatology requirements for PMDD?
|
87.1. Symptoms must occur during most cycles for at least one year
87.2. Symptoms must interfere with work, social activities and/or relationships 87.3. Symptoms must be restricted to the perimenstrual time period (7 days before to 3 days after the onset of menses) 87.4. Symptoms must be confirmed by daily diary for at least two cycles |
|
|
88. Name some non-pharmacological and pharmacological interventions for PMDD
|
88.1. Non-pharmacological:
88.1.1. Awareness 88.1.2. Improved social support 88.1.3. Cognitive behavioral therapy 88.1.4. Increased aerobic exercise 88.1.5. Changed diet: high carbs/ low protein, decreased caffeine and sodium, increased calcium intake 88.2. Pharmacological: 88.2.1. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors 88.2.2. Antianxiolytics 88.2.3. Hormonal contraceptives and GnRH agonists that stop the cycle |
|
|
1) What is chromosomal sex determined by?
|
a) Whether the sperm fertilizing the ovum has an X or Y chromosome
|
|
|
2) What must occur for the undifferentiated gonads to develop into testes?
|
a) Must have a functional Y chromosome with an SRY gene which stimulates an autosome to produce H-Y antigen (which stimulates the medulla to develop into testes and the cortex to fade away)
|
|
|
3) What must occur for the undifferentiated gonads to develop into ovaries?
|
a) Must have migration of the primordial germ cells to the undifferentiated gonad and
b) the absence of a functional Y chromosome and c) the presence of at least 2 functional X chromosomes- (the medulla fades away and the cortex develops into ovaries) |
|
|
v4) What happens if the primordial germ cells do not migrate?
|
a) In the XX individual, the gonads will remain in the undifferentiated state, or become gonadal streaks.
b) In the XY individual, testes will develop (assuming the other conditions are all met). |
|
|
5) What three things must be present for male internal genitalia to develop?
|
a) Androgens, Mullerian Inhibiting Factor and Inductor Substance
b) Wolffian ducts develop into the epididymus, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle, and the Mullerian ducts recede |
|
|
6) What must be present for the female internal genitalia to develop?
|
a) Absence of androgens,
b) Absence of Mullerian Inhibiting Factor and c) Absence of Inductor Substance d) Mullerian ducts develop into oviducts, uterus, and vagina, and Wolffian ducts recede |
|
|
7) What are the three terms for the first half of the menstrual cycle?
|
a) Proliferative phase (watch out this is not accurate)
b) preovulatory phase and c) follicular phase |
|
|
8) When does the proliferative phase start? End??
|
a) It starts at the END OF MENSES and ends at ovulation
|
|
|
9) What factor(s) must be met for male external genitalia to develop?
|
a) Presence of androgens
|
|
|
10) What factor(s) must be met for female external genitalia to develop?
|
a) Absence of androgens
|
|
|
11) Name the three undifferentiated structures of external genitalia and what they form with differentiation in MALES:
|
a) Uro-genital fold→ urethra
b) Genital tubercle→ penis c) Labio-scrotal swelling→ scrotum (scrotal sac) |
|
|
12) Name the three undifferentiated structures of external genitalia and what they form with differentiation in FEMALES:
|
a) Uro-genital fold→ labia minora
b) Genital tubercle→ clitoris c) Labio-scrotal swelling→ labia majora |
|
|
13) What are the two functions of the ovary?
|
a) Houses all immature ova that a woman will ever possess
b) Houses two sequentially present hormone producing sites |
|
|
14) Where does implantation of the fertilized ovum usually take place?
|
a) The upper 2/3 of the uterus, the fundus
|
|
|
15) Is the preovulatory phase variable or relatively fixed?
|
a) Variable, day 1 to ovulation
|
|
|
16) What is the name of the phenomenon in which organs of the peritoneal cavity are irritated by blood released at ovulation which may result in intense pain?
|
a) Mittelschmerz
|
|
|
17) What is the hormone producing site in the ovary prior to ovulation?
|
a) The Graafian or ovarian follicle
|
|
|
18) What three hormones does the ovarian follicle produce prior to ovulation?
|
a) Estrogen,
b) androgens, c) inhibin |
|
|
19) When does ovulation occur?
|
a) 14 +/- 2 days BEFORE the first day of menses
|
|
|
20) What are the three names for the second half of the menstrual cycle?
|
a) Secretory phase,
b) postovulatory phase, c) luteal phase |
|
|
21) Is the length of the postovulatory phase variable or fixed? How long is it?
|
a) Fixed, 14 +/-2 days
|
|
|
22) Name the four things that are released at ovulation:
|
a) Follicular fluid,
b) corona radiate, c) sticky cumulus and d) the ovum |
|
|
23) After ovulation, what develops from the remains of the Graafian follicle? This is the hormone producing site of the postovulatory phase
|
a) The corpus luteum
|
|
|
24) What hormones does the corpus luteum produce?
|
a) Progesterone,
b) estrogen, c) androgens and d) inhibin |
|
|
25) What color is the corpus luteum?
|
a) Yellow
|
|
|
26) What occurs in the proliferative phase in terms of the uterus?
|
a) Cells of the endometrium increase in size and number after menses to ovulation
|
|
|
27) What occurs during menses in terms of the uterus?
|
a) Endometrium sloughs off and is eliminated in menstruation
|
|
|
28) What occurs in the secretory phase in terms of the uterus?
|
a) Endometrial cells fill with fats and glycogens
|
|
|
29) How many chromosomes go humans have? How many of those are sex chromosomes?
|
a) 46, 2
|
|
|
30) When does a female have the most ova in her ovary
|
a) Before she is born, 20 weeks after conception (about 7 million)
|
|
|
31) Around the time of ovulation, the cells lining the cervix produce what kind of mucus?
|
a) Clear, slippery like raw egg whites and relatively easy for sperm to penetrate
|
|
|
32) What is the major hormone produced by the ovarian follicle and by the corpus luteum, respectively?
|
a) Ovarian follicle= estrogen,
b) corpus luteum= progesterone |
|
|
33) What are the hair-like cells on the fimbria that help transport the ovum into the lumen of the fallopian tube?
|
a) Cilia
|
|
|
34) Is the penis or the clitoris more sensitive to touch? Why?
|
a) The clitoris due to the same amount of nerve endings as the penis being densely packed into a smaller area
|
|
|
35) Which has the narrower lumen, the ampulla or the isthmus of the oviduct?
|
a) The isthmus
|
|
|
36) Where does fertilization usually occur?
|
a) The ampulla-isthmus junction of the oviduct
|
|
|
37) How long does the ovum stay at the ampulla-isthmus junction?
|
a) 2-2.5 days
|
|
|
38) How long is the ovum most capable of being fertilized?
|
a) 24 hours after ovulation
|
|
|
39) How long can sperm survive after ejaculation?
|
a) 2-3 days
|
|
|
40) When are vaginal fluids the most acidic?
|
a) After menarche and before menopause
|
|
|
41) What are the corpora cavernosa?
|
a) Specialized erectile tissue located in the clitoris which engorge with blood during sexual stimulation
|
|
|
42) What is the perineum?
|
a) The very sensitive area of tissue between the vaginal opening and the anus
|
|
|
43) What does menstrual fluid consist of?
|
a) Approximately 2-4 tablespoons of blood,
b) cell fragments from the cells of the endometrium, c) glandular secretions from endometrial cells and d) the unfertilized ovum |
|
|
44) Are the labia majora or the labia minora covered in sweat and sebaceous glands?
|
a) Both the labia minora and the inside of the labia majora
|
|
|
45) What are the structures within the breast in which milk is stored momentarily before letdown?
|
a) The sinuses
|
|
|
46) How long does it take for the ovum to move from the wall of the ovary to the ampulla-isthmus junction of the oviduct?
|
a) Just minutes
|
|
|
47) Are men or women more likely to get bladder infections? Why?
|
a) Women because their urethra is shorter
|
|
|
48) Where are primordial germ cells produced and where must they migrate to before ovaries or testes can develop?
|
a) PGCs are produced in the yolk sac and they must migrate to the undifferentiated gonad
|
|
|
49) What are the two structures that make up the undifferentiated gonad?
|
a) The medulla and the cortex
|
|
|
50) Does menstrual bleeding occur in the follicular of the luteal phase?
|
a) The follicular phase
|
|
|
51) Do the labia minora increase in size during sexual excitement?
|
a) Yes, up to three times their original size
|
|
|
52) What is the mucus like that the cervix produces when estrogen levels are lower?
|
a) Thick and pasty like partially dry Elmer’s glue53)
|
|
|
53) What structures of the vagina serve as pooling places for sperm and semen and also serve as shock absorbers during sexual intercourse?
|
a) The fornices
|
|
|
54) What structure forms when the labia minora meet at the front?
|
a) The prepuce of the clitoris
|
|
|
55) During childbirth, what procedure cuts the perineum?
|
a) An episiotomy
|
|
|
56) What is an ectopic pregnancy?
|
a) A pregnancy in which the embryo develops anywhere except the upper portion of the uterus
|
|
|
57) What occurs if the sticky cumulus is not produced?
|
a) The cilia of the fimbria will have a hard time getting the ovum into the lumen of the oviducts
|
|
|
58) What does bipotentiality of sex differentiation mean?
|
a) Outcomes of earlier stages do not necessarily determine the direction of development at subsequent stages
b) Raw materials to develop in either direction are available at each stage |
|
|
59) What is the sex chromosome complement of an individual with Turner syndrome?
|
a) XO
|
|
|
60) Do individuals with Turner syndrome have functional gonads?
|
a) No, they are infertile
|
|
|
61) When do gonads begin to sex differentiate?
|
a) 6 weeks after conception
|
|
|
62) What structures make up the internal genitalia (internal reproductive plumbing) of males?
|
a) Epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory ducts and tubes
|
|
|
63) What structures make up the internal genitalia (internal reproductive plumbing) of females?
|
a) Uterus,
b) oviducts, and c) vagina |
|
|
64) How do the ligaments holding the ovaries in place respond to changing estrogen levels?
|
a) the higher the estrogen level, the more they contract and relax to jiggle the ovaries
|
|
|
65) What does the corona radiata do?
|
a) Provides nutrients for ovum from ovulation until the ovum is inside the oviduct
|
|
|
66) What is endometriosis?
|
a) An illness that occurs when endometrial tissue grows somewhere outside of the uterus
|
|
|
67) Is the vagina sensitive to pain?
|
a) Relatively no, that is why surgery on the vagina usually does not require anesthesia
|
|
|
68) What is the Grafenburg spot?
|
a) Otherwise known as the G spot, this is a small highly sensitive region of the vaginal wall of some women. It has a spongy and striated texture. Stimulation can result in ejaculation of fluids through the urethral opening
|
|
|
69) Where does vagina lubrication during sexual excitement come from?
|
a) Comes from interstitial fluid forced from between cells of the vaginal lining when blood vessels in the region enlarge by engorging with blood during sexual excitement
|
|
|
70) What is the mons pubis?
|
a) A mound of fat and connective tissue on the pubic bone, covered with hair after puberty. Marks the front of the vulva
|
|
|
71) What are the Bulbs of the Vestibule?
|
a) Specialized erectile tissue located in the labia majora that engorge with blood in sexual excitement
|
|
|
72) Can the thickness and vascularization of the hymen vary from woman to woman?
|
yes
|
|
|
73) What is totally sealed hymen without an opening called?
|
a) An imperforate hymen
|
|
|
74) What do the Glands of Bartholin do?
|
a) Thought to play some role in vaginal lubrication
|
|
|
75) What are differences in breast size between women usually due to?
|
a) Amount of adipose tissue or connective fat
|
|
|
76) What are the Montgomery glands and what do they do?
|
a) The Montgomery glands are glands on the areola of the breast that secrete antibacterial substances during breast feeding that both lubricate the nipple and reduce the risk of breast infections.
|
|
|
77) What happens to the color of the areola during and after pregnancy?
|
a) The areola darkens with pregnancy and stays dark afterwards
|
|
|
78) What do endocrine glands produce?
|
a) Hormones
|
|
|
79) What are the reproductive actions of estrogen?
|
a) Proliferation of the endometrium during the follicular phase of the monthly cycle
b) Build up of mammary tissue in the breast during the luteal phase and during pregnancy c) Addition of muscle cells to the uterus during pregnancy |
|
|
80) What are the non-reproductive system actions of estrogen?
|
a) Decreases fat storage
b) Increases general activity level c) Decreases food intake d) Softens skin and maintains skin resilience e) Increases bone development and retains calcium in bones f) Maintains stability of blood pressure |
|
|
81) What are the target tissues of estrogen and progesterone?
|
a) Every cell of the body
|
|
|
82) What are the reproductive actions of progesterone?
|
a) Increases fats and glycogens in endometrial cells
b) Increase mammary gland development c) Inhibits coordinated contractions of the uterus |
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83) What are the non-reproductive actions of progesterone?
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a) reverses estrogens suppression of fat storage
b) Increases food intake and appetite c) Decreases coordinated contractions of smooth muscle throughout the body d) Maintains stability of blood pressure e) Increases sleepiness |
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84) How are hormones transported to the posterior pituitary?
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a) Axons carry hormones produced by cell bodies located in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary
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85) What is the major difference between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland?
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a) While an exocrine gland is ducted, an endocrine gland is a ductless gland that discharges hormones directly into the bloodstream and the released hormones are transported long distances through the blood to their target tissue where they act.
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86) What are the two simultaneously present endocrine glands of the pituitary gland?
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a) The posterior pituitary
b) The anterior pituitary |
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87) Do the anterior and posterior pituitary glands directly communicate with each other?
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a) No
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88) What is the tissue that connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary?
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a) The infindibulum
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89) Does the posterior pituitary produce hormones?
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a) No! It only RELEASES hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus
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90) What are the two hypothalamic nuclei that produce hormones released by the posterior pituitary?
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a) Paraventricular nucleus
b) Supraoptic nucleus |
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91) What hormone does the paraventricular nucleus produce?
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a) Oxytocin
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92) What hormone does the supraoptic nucleus produce?
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a) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin
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93) What are the two things that oxytocin does?
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a) Stimulates milk letdown during breast feeding
b) Stimulates contractions of the uterus |
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94) What is the primary stimulus for oxytocin release?
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a) Sucking of the breast sends a neural signal to the hypothalamus
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95) Are oxytocin levels high or low during labor?
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a) High, but we do not know if a high level of oxytocin causes labor or is a result of labor
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96) What is a synthetic oxytocin that can be used to stimulate labor?
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a) Pitocin
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97) What does ADH do?
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a) Promotes the retention of water by blocking water loss in urine
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98) What are some inhibitors of ADH?
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a) Caffeine and alcohol
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99) What does Vasopressin do?
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a) Increases blood pressure, vasoconstrictor
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100) Explain how hormones are produced in the hypothalamus and released in the posterior pituitary
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a) Cell bodies in the hypothalamus (specifically the paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus) produce the hormone (oxytocin and ADH/ Vasopressin), they leave the cell bodies, travel down the cell axons through the infindibulum and then terminate in the posterior pituitary where those hormones are released into the pituitary and then into the blood stream where they act on their target tissue
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101) What is the median eminence?
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a) The median eminence is the nucleus at the base of the hypothalamus where releasing hormones enter the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system in order to be transported to the pituitary gland.
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102) What is the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system?
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a) It is a specialized blood vessel system that transports releasing hormones from the median eminence through the infindibulum to the anterior pituitary
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103) What structure produces releasing hormones?
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a) The hypothalamus
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104) What are hormones that act “toward” a number of endocrine glands around the body controlling the production and release of hormones from these endocrine glands?
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a) Tropic hormones
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105) What structure produces tropic hormones?
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a) The anterior pituitary
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