Psych313 Midterm #2

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Ribosomes

Back 1

Lifespan Development; "read" DNA sequences that have been transcribed onto RNA in order to construct proteins

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Codon

Back 2

Lifespan Development; each three nucleotides specify particular amino acid

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Hemophilia

Back 3

Lifespan Development; individuals don’t have blood clotting abilities; x-linked disorder, so woman don’t get it, can only be carriers

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Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms

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Lifespan Development; occurs when variations in a single base are responsible for the difference between two alleles.

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APOE Gene

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Lifespan Development; located on chromosome 19, predicts risk of Alzheimer's disease

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Ventricular Zone

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Lifespan Development; along ventricles, within lining of NT; where cell division is occurring; many cells divide horizontally and help to grow size of brain; daughter cells divide vertically and migrate

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Radial Glial Cells

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Lifespan Development; long processes along which neurons and other glial cells can migrate

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Steps of Neural Development

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Lifespan Development;
- Cell Proliferation -(Neurogenesis)
- Migration
- Differentiation
- Circuit Formation (Synaptogenesis)
- Neuron Death (Apoptosis)
- Rearrangement of connections (Circuit Pruning & refinement of synapses)

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Rostral-Caudal Axis

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Lifespan Development; division of nervous system into spinal cord, hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain; hindbrain controlled by Hox genes

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Dorsal and Ventral Halves

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Lifespan Development; ventral become motor, dorsal become sensory; organization of ventral NT under proteins SONIC HEDGEHOG released by notochord; differentiation of dorsal NT occurs in response to BMP, inducing agent involved with earlier differentiation of ectoderm

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The neural tube differentiates in two directions:

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Lifespan Development;
- Along Rostral-Caudal Axis
- Between Dorsal/Ventral Halves

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Growth Cone

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Lifespan Development; growing tip of neuron as it “reaches out”; responds to chemicals in environment

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Growth cones respond to environment by:

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Lifespan Development;
A – sticking to surfaces of other cells B – sticking to other axons traveling in same direction C – growing toward chemical attractants D – being repulsed by chemicals

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Fasciculation

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Lifespan Development; process by which axons growing in the same direction stick together

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Cell Adhesion Molecule

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Lifespan Development; molecule on the surface of a growing axon that promotes fasciculation

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Caspases

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Lifespan Development; family of cysteine proteases that play essential roles in apoptosis (programmed cell death), necrosis, and inflammation; enzyme within a cell that cuts up DNA and produces cell death

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Apoptosis

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Lifespan Development; programmed cell death

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Synaptic Pruning

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Lifespan Development; process in which functional synapses are maintained and nonfunctional synapses are lost

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Critical Period

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Lifespan Development; segment of time during development in which a particular experience is influential and after which experience has little or no effect

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Nogo Inhibitors

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Lifespan Development; enzyme that prevents growth cones from activating; prevents further sprouting by mature axons

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Amyloid

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Lifespan Development; chemical, related to tau protein; encourages dissociation of tau protein; associated with degeneration of tissue, such as in patience with Alzheimer’s disease and other types of dementia

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Werner's Syndrome

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Lifetime Development; genetic disorder, causes unusually rapid telomere shortening and premature aging

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Telomeres

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Lifetime Development; shortening of these may result in some symptoms of aging.

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Wavelength

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Vision; distance between successive peaks of a wave; determines color in light

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Amplitude

Back 25

Vision; height of a wave; in vision, source of subjective experience of brightness

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Photons

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Vision; individual, invisible very small particles that form waves of electromagnetic energy

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Refraction

Back 27

Vision; deflection, or changing of direction, of light at a boundary (like between air and water)

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Cornea

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Vision; Clear window, where life comes in curved, light comes in, bends light (refraction), flips image into back of the eye

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Pupil

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Vision; Muscle that contracts or dilates to let more or less light in; controlled by the iris

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Lens

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Vision; Focuses image on the back of the eye, attached to muscles that more in and out (like camera lens focus)

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Retina

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Vision; Back of eye, beginning of nervous system part of vision, where photoreceptors and interneurons are located and responsible for sensing light

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Fovea

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Vision; Center of vision, center always falls on fovea; detailed vision

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Optic Nerve

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Vision; Second cranial nerve, axons from throughout the retina; fiber pathway formed by axons in ganglion cell as they leave eye

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Three Layers in Retina

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Vision; photoreceptor layer (rods and cones), bipolar layer, ganglion layer (axons)

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Pigmented epithelium

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Vision; very back of eye, absorbs light, bounces around light to see better

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Ganglion Cells Layer

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Vision; retinal interneurons farthest from photoreceptors, contains ganglion cells and gives rise to optic nerve

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Bipolar Cell

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Vision; cell in inner nuclear layer that forms part of the straight pathway between photoreceptors and ganglion cells

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Horizontal Cell

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Vision; retinal interneuron located in inner nuclear layer that integrates signals from across surface of retina

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Rod

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Vision; photoreceptor that responds to low levels of light but not to color

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Cone

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Vision; photoreceptor that operates in bright conditions and responds differentially to color

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Scotopic Vision

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Vision; lowlight/night vision, rods mostly carry signals

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Photopic Vision

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Vision; bright light/color vision, carried by cones

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Opsins

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Vision; have certain shape (like all proteins) when light strikes it, changes shape, photosensitive to presence or absence of light

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Dark Current

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Vision; flow of sodium into photoreceptor in the dark

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Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

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Vision; mainline projection of retina ganglion cells; nucleus within thalamus that receives input from optic tracts

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Superior Colliculus

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Vision; ow level visual reflexes; structure in tectum of midbrain that guides movement of eyes and head toward newly detected objects in visual field

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Layers of LGN

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Vision;
- Parvocellular – cones; receives information from P cells – retinal ganglion cell that is small and responds to high contrast and color
- Koniocellular – receives information from K cells – small percentage of ganglion cells that do not fit criteria for P or M cells and respond to blue and yellow light
- Magnocellular – rods (typically movement); receives information from M cells – large ganglion cell that responds to all wavelengths regardless of color, subtle differences in contrast, and stimuli that come and go rapidly

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Blobs

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Vision; where color vision is processed

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V4

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Vision; only cares about visual colors

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V5/MT

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Vision; focuses on motion/movement

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V3

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Vision; focuses on outlines/shapes of things

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Trichromacy Theory

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Vision; states that just three color processes account for all the colors we are able to distinguish

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Opponent Process Theory

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Vision; attempts to explain color vision in terms of opposing neural processes; use of complimentary colors

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Retinotopic Map

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Vision; exists in visual cortex; adjacent retinal receptors activate adjacent cells in the visual cortex

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Form Vision

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Vision; adjacent retinal receptors activate adjacent cells in the visual cortex

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Prosopagnosia

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Vision; inability to recognize familiar faces

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V4 Damage

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Vision; color agnosia; similar to color blindness, washout of all colors

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V5 Damage

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Vision; movement agnosia, ball moving looks like series of snap shots

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Agnosia

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Vision; lack of knowledge of visual objects

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Damage to Ventral Stream ("what" pathway)

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Vision; unable to distinguish between different objects

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Amplitude

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NSP; height of a periodic curve measured on its vertical axis (amount of vibration produced by sound)

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Frequency

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NSP; refers to the cycles per unit of time, or wavelength of a sound, measured in Hertz (Hz)

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Pinna

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NSP; visible part of outer ear, collects and focuses sound,
localizes sound, indicates emotion in some species (e.g. dogs’ ears)

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Auditory Canal

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NSP; leads to tymptanic membrane, tube-shaped structure

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The boundaries of the middle ear are formed by two membranes:

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NSP;
- Tympanic membrane – (eardrum) membrane separating outer and middle ears
- Oval window – membrane forming boundary between middle and inner ears

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The ossicles transfer sound from air to fluid:

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NSP;
- Incus – middle of three ossicles found in middle ear
- Malleus – first of three ossicles in middle ear
- Stapes – innermost ossicles in middle ear

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Acoustic Reflex

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NSP; protective restriction of movement of tympanic membrane and ossicles, resulting in reduction of sound to inner ear

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Three parallel canals in cochlea:

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NSP;
- Vestibular canal
- Cochlear duct (contains Organ of Corti)
- Tympanic canal

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Two membranes in cochlea:

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NSP;
- Tectorial membrane – membrane in inner ear that covers top of hair cells and is actually attached to some of them
- Basilar membrane – separates tympanic canal and cochlear duct

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Organ of Corti

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NSP; Consists of inner and outer hair cells,sits on the basilar membrane. Some hair cells are attached to the tectorial membrane. Movement of the basilar membrane activates hair cells

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Superior Olive

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NSP; localizes sound, get inputs from both ears

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Spiral ganglion cells form connections:

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NSP;
- with the hair cells of the cochlea.
- with the dorsal and ventral cochlear nuclei via the auditory-vestibular nerve

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When input proceeds to the inferior colliculi:

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NSP;
- the dorsal cochlear nucleus forms a direct connection.
- the ventral cochlear nucleus connects to the superior olive first.

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Medial Geniculate Nucleus

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NSP; Axons from the inferior colliculi synapse in the thalamus, projects to primary auditory cortex (A1) in the temporal lobe.

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Primary auditory cortex columns respond to:

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NSP;
- High frequencies are processed in caudal areas.
- Low frequencies are processed in rostral areas

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Secondary Auditory Cortex

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NSP; responds to complex sounds, including speech sounds, responds to vibration,
home of what and where pathways

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Wenicke's Area

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NSP; in secondary auditory cortex, specifically decodes speech

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Tonotopic Organization

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NSP; different frequencies are processed in different locations, found throughout the auditory system, from the basilar membrane up through auditory cortex

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The otolith organs provide information about:

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NSP; in vestibular system, the position of head and linear acceleration (force perceived when rate of movement changes)

Front 80

In central vestibular pathways, synapses occur in:

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NSP; the vestibular nuclei of the pons and medulla AND the cerebellum

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Mechanoreceptors in skin very by:

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NSP;
- Encapsulation
- Rate of adaptation
- Receptive field size

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Free Nerve Endings

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NSP; aren’t encapsulated; carry pain information and some temperature information

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Secondary Somatosensory Cortex

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NSP; located in the posterior parietal lobe, further processing of sensation, complex spatial perception

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Damage to primary somatosensory cortex:

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NSP; impairs both sensation and movement

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Damage to secondary somatosensory cortex:

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NSP; produces neglect syndrome

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Temperature Pathways

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NSP; temperature information shares the same C-fiber pathways used to transmit pain information (unmyelinated axons)

Front 87

Nociceptors (free nerve endings) respond to:

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NSP; mechanical injury, heat, and chemicals

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Substantia Gelatinosa

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NSP; group of cells in outer gray matter of dorsal horn that receive synapses from pain fibers

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Spinothalamic Pathway

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NSP; fibers that carry pain and temperature information from substantia gelatinosa to thalamus

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Periaqueductal Gray (PAG)

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NSP; where forebrain structures synapse; contains opiate receptors, stimulation reduces pain, sends descending inhibitory signals to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord

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Olfactory Epithelium

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NSP; layer in nasal cavity containing olfactory receptors

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Smooth Muscles

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Movement; muscles controlled by autonomic nervous system; digestive tract, arteries, reproductive system

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Striated Muscles

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Movement; named for striped appearance, skeletal muscles
and cardiac muscles of the heart

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Sacromere

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Movement; defined by where actin sends fibers on one direction; bound on either side by a Z line and spanned by thin filaments

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Myrofibril

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Movement; long fiber strand running length of muscle fiber responsible for contraction

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Troponin

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Movement; protein covering of an actin molecule that prevents molecule from binding with myosin when a muscle is in resting state

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Slow Twitch

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Movement; use aerobic metabolism, participate in endurance movements, postural muscles; require oxygen generated ATP; endurance movements

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Fast Twitch

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Movement; use anaerobic metabolism, participate in brief, powerful movements, hands, fingers, arms, shoulder muscles; uses other sources of energy to create ATP besides oxygen; quick movements

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Alpha Motor Neurons

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Movement; go out to skeletal muscles; directly responsible for signaling a muscle fiber to contract

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Neuromuscular Junction

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Movement; synapse formed between an alpha motor neuron axon terminal and a muscle fiber

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Muscle Spindles

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Movement; sensory structure that provides feedback regarding muscle stretch; lie parallel to muscle fibers within a muscle; synapse with AMN and SI

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Golgi Tendon Organs

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Movement; structure located in tendons of muscles that provides information about muscle contraction; synapse with SI, inhibiting activity of AMN, reducing contraction

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Gamma Motor Neurons

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Movement; small spinal neuron that innervates muscle spindles

Front 104

Ia Sensory Fibers

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Movement; large, fast sensory axon that connects a muscle spindle to neurons in the spinal cord

Front 105

Reciprocal Inhibition

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Movement; the activation of one muscle in an antagonistic pair inhibits the contraction of the other

Front 106

Lateral Pathway

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Movement; connects the primary motor cortex with the spinal motor neurons, and is responsible primarily for voluntary movements.

Front 107

Ventromedial Pathway

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Movement; originates in the brainstem, and is responsible for reflexive movements

Front 108

Cerebellum

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Movement; involved with the timing and sequencing of complex movements

Front 109

Basal Ganglia

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Movement; strong connections with the substantia nigra serves as a “filter” for voluntary movement, stores learned motor sequences

Front 110

Three Main Areas of Motor Cortex:

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Movement;
- Primary motor cortex
- Premotor area (PMA)
- Supplementary motor area (SMA)

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Internally Guided Movements

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Movement; prefrontal, basal ganglia, SMA

Front 112

Externally Guided Movements

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Movement; parietal, cerbellum, PMC

Front 113

Parkinson's Disease (Causes)

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Movement;
- Degeneration of substantia nigra
- Less dopaminergic activity in basal ganglia
- Genetics in early-onset cases
- Correlates with exposure to toxins

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Parkinson's Disease (Symptoms)

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Movement;
- Difficulty moving
- Tremor in resting body parts
- Frozen facial expressions
- Stooped posture
- Loss of balance, frequent falls
- Autonomic disturbances
- Premature death

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Zeitgebers

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BRS; environmental event that resets and entrains rhythm

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Circadian

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BRS; daily biological rhythm

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Ultradian

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BRS; more than once a day biological rhythm

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Circannual

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BRS; yearly biological rhythm

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Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

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BRS; pacemaker of circadian rhythms, incorporates more 2-deoxyglucose during light period, electrically more active during light period of cycle, rhythmic in the absence of inputs/outputs, i.e., it’s intrinsic

Front 120

Retinohypothalamic Pathway

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BRS; leads from retina of the eye to the hypothalamus; provides light information necessary for the maintenance of circadian rhythms

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Desynchronized Activity

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BRS; having different periods and phases; in EEG represents high levels of brain activity

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Synchronized Activity

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BRS; having identical periods and phases; in EEG represents relatively low levels of brain activity

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Pons-Geniculate-Occipital Waves

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BRS; electrical waveform observed during REM sleep; originating in pons and traveling to thalamus and occipital cortex; associated with eye movement

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Restorative Function of Sleep

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BRS; metabolism, energy expenditure

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Adaptive Function of Sleep

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BRS; eating efficiency, vulnerability to predators

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Activation Synthesis Theory

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BRS; Once brain stem circuits are activated, areas of the limbic system involved in emotions, sensations, and memories, including the amygdala and hippocampus, become active. The brain synthesizes and interprets this internal activity and attempts to create meaning from these signals, which results in dreaming.

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Dyssomnias

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BRS; abnormality in the amount, quality or timing of sleep

Front 128

Parasomnias

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BRS; abnormal behavior or physiology during sleep