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71 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Classical Conditioning
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Teaching/Learning method using stimulus response
Example: Pavlov's Dog |
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Simultaneous Conditioning
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Conditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus start and stop at the same time
Example: Ring the bell as you give the dog food, stop at the same time |
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Short-Delay Conditioning
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Conditioned Stimulus begins before Unconditioned Stimulus; both stop at the same time.
Most efficient method for classical conditioning |
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Trace Conditioning
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Conditioned Stimulus begins and ends before Unconditioned Stimulus starts
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Stimulus Generalization
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Response gets generalized to other stimuli
Ex: Baby Albert |
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Stimulus Discrimination
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Learns to distinguish conditioned stimulus more precisely
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Unconditioned Stimulus
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The previously known, natural stimulus
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Unconditioned Response
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Natural response to natural stimulus
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Conditioned Stimulus
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Newly introduced stimulus
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Conditioned Response
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Response to newly introduced stimulus; should be the same as response to unconditioned stimulus that was presented with conditioned stimulus
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Operant Conditioning
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Learning associated with behaviors using reward and punishment
More active than Classical Conditioning |
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Behaviorism
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Argues that psychologists can only study what they observe (behaviors). They cannot study emotions and the mind because they are not observable. Includes classical and operant conditioning.
B.F. Skinner and James Watson were two prominent behaviorists |
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Thorndike Law of Effect
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The effect of actions produces learning
Ex: A cat is trying to get out of a box and accidentally opens it while moving around. It learns how it got out and does it again |
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Contingencies
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Circumstances under which reinforcement and punishment occur
Ex: How often the behavior is reinforced |
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Continuous Reinforcement
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Reinforce and action every time it occurs
Best method of punishment |
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Intermittent Reinforcement
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Only sometimes reinforce and action
Best for reinforcement |
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Ratio Reinforcement
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Schedule of reinforcement based on the number of times a behavior occurs
The organism displays rapid, constant behavior Ex: Chocolate every 10 correct answers |
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Interval Reinforcement
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Intermittent reinforcement based on the time passed since behavior occurs
Organism learns time Ex: Reinforced for first bar press in 15 seconds |
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Shaping
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Reward behavior that is progressively closer approximation to desired result. Using incremental rewarding to reach a target behavior
Ex: Ping Pong Pigeons |
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Habituation
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Decrease in response to stimulus over time
Ex: get used to alarm clock and sleep through it |
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Escape Behavior
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Escape from an aversive situation; negative reinforcement
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Avoidance Behavior
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When you're signaled that a stimulus will occur, respond before aversive situation occurs
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Mowrer's Two Process Theory
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Escape behavior is learned through negative reinforcement. Avoidance behavior is maintained by a different negative reinforcement (ie reduction of anxiety)
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Positive Reinforcement
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Adding something enjoyable to encourage a behavior
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Negative Reinforcement
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Removing something aversive to encourage a behavior
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Positive Punishment
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Adding something aversive to discourage behavior
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Negative Punishment
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Removing something pleasant to discourage behavior
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Cognitive Psychology
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Looks at people as information processors. overcame Behaviorism as dominant psychological approach.
Looks at memory, attention, decision-making, reasoning, problem-solving |
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Memory
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Short term memory and long term memory share overlapping brain regions. The difference is in activation; short term memory is activated when information is in use
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Short Term (Working) Memory
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Duration of 15-20 seconds
Capacity of 7+/-2 units Store in chunks using retrieval cues to organize |
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Multitasking
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NOT more short term memory; simply ability to switch quickly between tasks; takes away from performance on other tasks
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Long Term Memory Encoding
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Taking in the information
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Maintenance Rehearsal
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Encoding by repetition to remember something; works better for short term memory
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Elaborative Encoding
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Make the information fit what you already know; better way to internalize for long term memory
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Encoding Specificity
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Better at remembering if you see the information in the same context as before
Explains why elaborative encoding is a better method |
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Consolidation
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Moving the information from short term memory to long term memory (for storage)
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Retrieval
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Retrieval cues to bring information to short term memory
Lead from one thing to another |
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Procedural Memory
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Long term memory related to actions.
Ex: H.M. has epilepsy, removed hippocampus. He could no longer form new memories and remember 10 years previous to removal, but could perform tasks and activities |
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Declarative Memory
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Long term memory involving facts, figures, and personal life events
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Semantic
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Declarative memory involving facts and figures
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Episodic
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Declarative memory involving personal events.
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Flashbulb Memories
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Type of episodic memory that is very vivid and includes location, time, actions, and following events. Often of very emotional time
Ex: Memories from 9/11 |
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Reconstruction
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Over time, people add and remove details of memories
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Construction
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How you perceive a memory
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Distributive Study
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Study information in one long chunk; works to encode short term memory
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Mass Practice
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Study spread out over time; works to encode long term memory
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Explicit Retrieval
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Memory is retrieved intentionally through either recognition (ie multiple choice) or recall (ie short answers)
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Implicit Retrieval
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Memory influences behavior without conscious awareness (declarative memories)
Ex: H.M. performed tasks without remembering anything |
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Attribution
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Judgement about why a behavior occurs
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Internal Attribution
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Behavior occurs because of traits of the person (actor)
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External Attribution
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Behavior occurs because of circumstances around the actor
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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People tend to judge others internally and themselves externally
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Defensive Attribution
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When something bad happens to someone else, blame it on internal factors to remove yourself from the situation
"It won't happen to me because I'm not like that person" |
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Self-Serving Bias
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If something good happens, make internal attributions about yourself and external about others
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Unrealistic Optimism
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Thinking that something bad is less likely to happen to you than to somebody else
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Attitudes
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Positive or negative judgements
They are expressed when they are strongly held, personal influence, and when they are asked. People have strongest attitudes about things in which they are involved |
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Cognitive Aspect of Attitudes
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The logic and reason behind what you thing about an issue
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Affective Aspect of Attitudes
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Emotional Reaction to an Issue
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Behavior Aspect of Attitudes
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How you behave when faced with an attitude
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Cognitive Dissonance
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Experience two opposing states simultaneously
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Festinger-Carlsmith Study
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Students were asked to perform a boring task and then tell others that it is a great job. One group was paid $1, the other was paid $20.
$20 group could justify lying because of the money, so they did not need to change their attitudes about the job or themselves $1 group had to change their attitude about the job and themselves because they could not justify lying |
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Persuation
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Sender needs to relate well to receiver. Message can be fear inducing, one-sided (if the receiver is uneducated), and two-sided (if receiver knows the other side)
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Receiver
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Accepts argument better when identifies with the sender
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How is a fear-inducing argument set up?
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Receiver must:
1) Fear the object 2) Think it is likely to happen 3) See it as preventable |
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Latitude of Acceptance
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Range around an attitude people hold. People might shift attitude within the range, but are unlikely to shift outside the range
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Peripheral Routes
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Rely on factors external to the argument to persuade people (sender's attractiveness, peer pressure, celebrities)
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Central Routes
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Demand thought from audience, need to think through argument; use the argument itself
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Conformity
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Going along with peer pressure
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Asch's Experiment
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3 lines of obvious different sizes
Subject conforms to wrong answer about 1/3 of the time If one confederate gave the right answer, subject gave right answer |
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Obedience
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Listening to people with authority or power
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Milgram's Study
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At what point do people stop unpleasant tasks? Teacher, learner, shocks.
Nobody stopped before 90 volts Average quit point for those who stopped was 300 volts 2/3 went to 450 volts Only time results changed was when there were two teachers and one stopped |
