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144 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Learning
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Some experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the learner.
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Habituation
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A general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding.
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Classical Conditioning
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When a nuetral stimulus evokes a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes that response.
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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
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Something that reliable produces a naturally occuring reaction in an organism (meat).
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Unconditioned Response (UR)
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A reflexive reaction that is reliably elicited by an unconditioned stimulus (salivation to meat).
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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A stimulus that is initially nuetral and produces no reliable response in an organism (bell).
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Conditioned Response (CR)
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A reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus (salivation to the bell).
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Aquisition
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The phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together.
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Second-Order Conditioning
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Conditioning where the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to produce learning from an earlier procedure in which it was used as a CS (first linked meat to bell and then bell to black square).
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Extinction
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The gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the US is no longer present.
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Spontaneous Recovery
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The tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period.
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Generalization
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A process in which the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the original one used during acquisition.
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Discrimination
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The capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli (a distinct lack of generalization).
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Rescorla-Wagner Model
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Created to account for the variety of classical conditioning phenomena that arise. Suggests that classical conditioning occurs better when there is an expectation and when the CS is unfamiliar compared to when it is familiar.
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Biological Preparedness
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A propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others, such as food aversions and phobias.
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Operant Conditioning
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A type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future.
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Law of Effect
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The principle that behaviors that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated and those that produce an "unpleasant state of affairs" are less likely to be repeated.
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Operant Behavior
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Behavior that an organism produced that has some impact on the environment (behavior occurs because of interaction with the environment).
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Reinforcer
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Any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it (Positive Reinforcement involves something desirable being present while Negative Reinforcement involves something undesirable bein removed). The net result is a positive for the subject.
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Punisher
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Any stimulus or event that functions to decrease he liklihood of the behavior that led to it (Positive Punishment involves something unpleasant being administered while Negative Punishment involves something desirable being removed). The net result is negative for the subject.
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Primary Reinforcers
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Satisfy biological needs, such as food, shelter, comfort, or warmth.
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Secondary Reinforcers
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Derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning, such as money.
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Premack Principle
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Discerning which of two activities someone would rather engage in means that the preferred activity can be used to reinforce a nonpreferred one.
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Overjustification Effect
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Circumstances when external rewards can undermine the intrinsic satisfation of performing a behavior.
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Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)
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An operant conditioning principle in which reinforcements are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made.
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Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
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An operant conditioning principle in which behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement (most consistent responding).
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Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)
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An operant conditioning principle in which reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses haved been made (continuous reinforcement is a special case).
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Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)
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An operant conditioning principle in which the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of resonses.
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Intermittent Reinforcement
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An operant conditioning principle in which only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement (very resistant to extinction).
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Intermittent-Reinforcement Effect
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The fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent renforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement.
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Shaping
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Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive approximations to a final desired behavior.
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Latent Learning
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A condition in which something is learned but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future.
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Cognitive Map
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A mental representation of the physical features of the environment.
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Observational Learning
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A condition in which learning takes place by watching the actions of others.
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Implicit Learning
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Learning that takes place largely independent of awarness of both the process and the products of information acquistion.
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Consciousness
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The person's subjective experience of the world and the mind.
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Cartesian Theatre
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A mental screen or stage on which things appear to be presented for viewing by the mind's eye.
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Phenomenolgy
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How things seem to the consious person.
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Problem of Other Minds
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The fundamental difficulty we have in percieving the consiousness of others.
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Experience
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The ability to feel pain, pleasure, hunger, anger, fear, and other emotions
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Agency
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The ability for self-control, planning, memory, or thought
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Mind/Body Problem
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The issue of how the mind is related to the body.
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Dichotic Listening
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A task in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear and tend to focus on one or the other.
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Cocktail Party Phenomenon
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People tune in one message even while they filter out others nearby, often after hearing their own name.
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Minimal Consciousness
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A low-level kind of sensory awareness and responsiveness that occurs when the mind inputs sensations and may output behavior.
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Full Consciousness
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Conciousness in which you know and are able to report your mental state.
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Self-Consciousness
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A distinct level of consciousness in which the person's attention is drawn to the self as an object.
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Mental Control
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The attempt to change conscious states of mind.
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Thought Suppression
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The conscious avoidance of a thought.
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Rebound Effect of Conscious Suppression
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The tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency following suppression.
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Ironic Processes of Mental Control
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Mental Processes that can produce ironic errors because monitorig for errors can itself produce them.
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Dynamic Unconscious
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An active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, the person's deepest instincts and desires, and the person's inner struggles to control these forces (derived from Freud's psychoanalytic theory).
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Repression
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A mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts and memories from consciousness.
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Cognitive Unconciousness
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The mental processes that give rise to the person's thoughts, choices, emotions, and behavior even though they are not experienced by the person.
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Subliminal Perception
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A thought or behavior that is influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report percieving.
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Altered States of Consciousness
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Forms of experience that depart from the normal subjective experience of the world and the mind.
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Circadian Rhythm
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A naturally occuring 24-hour cycle
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REM Sleep
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A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, a high level of brain activity, paralysis, and dreaming.
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Insomnia
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Difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep
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Sleep Apnea
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A disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods of time while asleep
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Somnambulism
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Occurs when the person arises and walks around during sleep (sleepwalking).
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Narcolepsy
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A disorder in which sudden sleep attacks occur in the middle of waking activities.
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Sleep Paralysis
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The experience of waking up unable to move.
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Night Terrors
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Abrupt awakenings with panic and intense emotional arousal.
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Manifest Content
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A dream's aparent topic or superficial meaning.
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Latent Content
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A dream's true underlying meaning.
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Activation-Synthesis Model
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The theory that dreams are produced when the brain attempts to make sense of activations that occur randomly during sleep.
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Psychoactive Drugs
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A chemical that influences consciousness or behavior by altering the brain's chemical message system.
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Drug Tolerance
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The tendency for larger doses of a drug to be required over time to achieve the same effect.
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Depressants
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Substances that reduce the activity of the central nervous system (Alcohol, barbiturates, inhalants).
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Expectancy Theory
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The idea that alcohol effects can be produced by people's expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations.
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Alcohol Myopia
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A condition that results when alcohol hampers attention, leading people to respond in simple ways to complex situations.
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Stimulants
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Substances that excite the central nervous system, heightening arousal and activity levels (Amphetamines, Ecstacy, Cocaine).
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Narcotics (Opiates)
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Highly addictive drugs that are derived from opium that relieve pain (Heroin, Morphine, Methadone).
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Harm Reduction Approach
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A response to high-risk behaviors that focuses on reducing the harm such behaviors have on people's lives.
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Hallucinogens
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Drugs that alter sensation and perception and often cause visual and auditory hallucinations (LSD, PCP, ketamine)
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Marijuana
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The leaves and buds of the hemp planet that contain THC
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Hypnosis
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An altered state of consciousness charaterized by suggestibility and the feeling that one's actions are occuring involuntarily.
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Posthypnotic Amnesia
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The failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget.
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Hypnotic Analgesia
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The reduction of pain through hypnosis in people who are susceptible to hypnosis.
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Meditation
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The practice of internal comtemplation.
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Medical Model
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The conceptualization of psychological abnormalities as diseases that, like biological diseases, have symptoms and causes and possible cures.
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DSM-IV-TR
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A classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other, similar problems. Each problem must involve disturbances in behavior, thoughts, or emotions, significant personal distress or impairment, and come from internal dysfunction.
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Comorbidity
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The co-occurance of two or more disorders in a single person.
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Diathesis-Stress Model
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Suggests that a person may e predisposed for a mental disorder that remains underexpressed until triggered by stress.
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Anxiety Disorder
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The class of mental disorders in which anxiety is the predominant feature.
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
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A disorder characterized by excessive wory accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance.
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Phobic Disorders
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Disorders characterized by marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations.
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Specific Phobia
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A disorder that involves an irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly interferes with a person's ability to function.
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Social Phobia
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A disorder that involves an irrational fear of being publicly humiliated or embarrassed.
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Preparedness Theory
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The idea that people are instinctively predisposed toward certain fears.
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Panic Disorder
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A disorder characterized by the sudden occurance of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror.
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Agoraphobia
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An extreme fear of venturing into public places.
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
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A disorder in which repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behavior (compulsions) designed to fend off those thoughts interfere with an individual's functioning.
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Dissociative Disorder
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A condition in which normal cognitive processes are severly disjointed and fragmented, creating significant disruptions in memory, awareness, or personality that can vary in length from a matter of minutes to many years.
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Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
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The presence within an individual of two or more distinct indentities that at different times take control of the individual's behavior.
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Dissociative Amnesia
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The sudden loss of memory for significant personal information.
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Dissociative Fugue
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The sudden loss of memory for one's personal history, accompanied by an abrupt departure from home and the assumption of a new identity.
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Mood Disorders
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Mental disorders that have mood disturbances as their predominant feature.
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Major Depressive Disorder
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A disorder characterized by a severely depressed mood that lasts two weeks or more ad is accompanied by feelings of worthlessness nd lack of pleasure, lethargy, and sleep and appetite disturbances.
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Dysthymia
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A disorder that involves the same symptoms as in depression only less severe, but the symptoms last longer, persisting for at least two years.
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Double Depression
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A moderately depressed mood that persists for at least two years and is punctuated by periods of major depression.
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Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
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Despression that involves recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern.
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Helplessness Theory
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The idea that individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes taht are internal, stable, and global.
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Bipolar Disorder
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An unstable emotional condition characterized by cycles of abnormal, persistent high mood (mania) an low mood (depression).
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Schizophrenia
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A disorder characterized by the profound disruption of basic psychological processes, a distorted perception of reality, altered or blunted emotions, and disturbances in thought, motivation, and behavior.
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Delusion
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A patently false belief system, often bizarre and grandiose, that is maintained in spite of its irrationality.
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Hallucination
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A false perceptual experience that has a compelling sense of being real despite the absence of external stimulation.
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Disorganized Speech
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A severe disruption of verbal communication in which ideas shift rapidly and incoherently from one to another unrelated topic.
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Grossly Disorganized Behavior
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Behavior that is inapproriate for the situation or ineffective in attaining goals, often with specific motor disturbances.
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Catatonic Behavior
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A marked decrease in all movement or an increase in mucular rigdity and overactivity.
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Negative Symptoms
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Emotional and social withdrawal, apathy, poverty of speech, and other indications of the absence or insufficiency of normal behavior, motivation, and emotion.
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Dopamine Hypothesis
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The idea that Schizophrenia involves an excess of dopamine activity.
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Expressed Emotion
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Emotional overinvolvement (intrusiveness) and escessive criticism directed toward the former patient by his or her family.
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Personality Disorders
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Disorder characterized by deepy ingrained, inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, or relating to others or controlling impulses that cause distress or impaired functioning.
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Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)
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A pervasive patter of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood.
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Stressors
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Specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being.
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Stress
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The physical and psychological response to internal or external stressors.
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Health Psychology
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The subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health.
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Chronic Stressor
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A source of stress that occurs continuously or repeatedly.
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Fight-or-Flight Resonse
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An emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action.
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General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)
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A three-stage physiological response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered, including the alarm, resistance, and exhaustion phases.
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Type A Behavior Pattern
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The tendency toward easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of time urgency, and competitive achievement strivings.
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Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
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A psychological disorder characterized by chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance of things that call the trauma to mind.
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Burnout
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A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaution created by long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation.
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Repressive Coping
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Avoiding situations or thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint.
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Rational Coping
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Facing a stressorand working to overcome it.
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Reframing
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Finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat.
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Stress Inoculation Training (SIT)
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A therapy that helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation.
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Relaxation Therapy
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A technique or reducing tension by consiously relaxing muscles of the body.
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Relaxation Response
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A condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure.
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Biofeedback
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The use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and possibly gain control over that function.
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Social Support
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The aid gained through interacting with others.
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Psychosomatic Illness
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An interaction between mind and body that can produce illness.
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Somatoform Disorders
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The set of psychological disorders in which the person displays physical symptoms not fully explained by a general medical condition.
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Hypochondriasis
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A psychological disorder in which a person is preoccupied with minor symptoms and developes an exaggerated belief that the symptoms signify a life-threatening illness.
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Somatization Disorder
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A psychological disorder invoving combinations of multiple complaints with no medical explanation.
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Conversion Disorder
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A disorder characterized by apparently debilitating physical symptoms that appear to be voluntary - but that the person experiences as involuntary.
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Sick Role
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A socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked to sickness.
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Self-Regulation
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The exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards.
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Mere Exposure Effect
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The tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure.
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Social Exchange
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The hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long asthey percieve a favorable ratio of costs to benefits.
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Comparison Level
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The cost-benefit ratio that people believe they deserve or could attain in another relationship.
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Equity
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A state of affairs in which the cost-benefit ratios of two partners are roughly equal.
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