Psych Units 7-9

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Learning

Back 1

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

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Associative learning

Back 2

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be Teo stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and it's consequences (as in operant conditioning)

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Stimulus

Back 3

Any event or situation that evokes a response

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Cognative learning

Back 4

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

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Classical conditioning

Back 5

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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Behaviorism

Back 6

The view that psychology 1. Should be am objective science that 2. Studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not with 2

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Respondent behavior

Back 7

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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Neutral stimulus (NS)

Back 8

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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Unconditioned response (UR)

Back 9

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

Front 10

Unconditional stimulus (US)

Back 10

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturaly and automatically-triggers a response (US)

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Conditioned response

Back 11

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus (CS)

Front 12

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Back 12

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

Front 13

Acquisition

Back 13

In classical conditioning the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditional stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

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Higher order conditioning

Back 14

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (also called second order conditioning)

Front 15

Extinction

Back 15

The diminishing of a conditioned rrsponse; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus US does not follow a conditioned stimulus CS; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

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Spontaneous recovery

Back 16

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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Generalization

Back 17

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Front 18

Discrimination

Back 18

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

Front 19

Learning

Back 19

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Front 20

Associative learning

Back 20

Learning that certain events occur together. The events nay be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and it's consequence (as in operant conditioning)

Front 21

Stimulus

Back 21

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Front 22

Operant conditioning

Back 22

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforced more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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Positive reinforcement

Back 23

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforces. A positive reinforced is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

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Negative reinforcement

Back 24

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforced is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Negative reinforcement is not punishment)

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Primary reinforcer

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An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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Conditioned reinforcer

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A stimulus that gains it's feinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

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Reinforcement schedule

Back 27

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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Continuous reinforcement

Back 28

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

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Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continous reinforcement

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Fixed ratio schedule

Back 30

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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Variable ratio schedule

Back 31

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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Fixed interval schedule

Back 32

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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Variable interval schedule

Back 33

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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Punishment

Back 34

An event that tends to decrease the behavior it follows

Front 35

Respondent behavior

Back 35

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Front 36

Operant behavior

Back 36

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Front 37

Cognative learning

Back 37

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Front 38

Cognitive map

Back 38

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

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Latent learning

Back 39

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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Intrinsic motivation

Back 40

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

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Observational learning

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Learning by observing others

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Modeling

Back 42

The process of obeying and imitating a specific behavior

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Mirror neurons

Back 43

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientist believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

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Prosocial behavior

Back 44

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

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Explicit memory

Back 45

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also called declaritive memory)

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Effort full processing

Back 46

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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Automatic processing

Back 47

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well learned information, such as word meanings

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Implicit memory

Back 48

Retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclaritive memory)

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Iconic memory

Back 49

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; o photographic or picture-image memory lasting no longer than a fee tenths of a second

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Echoic memory

Back 50

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is eslewhere, sound and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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Chunking

Back 51

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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Mnemonics

Back 52

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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Spacing effect

Back 53

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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Testing effect

Back 54

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

Front 55

Shallow processing

Back 55

Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

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Deep processing

Back 56

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retebtion

Front 57

Motivation

Back 57

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Front 58

Instinct

Back 58

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

Front 59

Drive-reduction theory

Back 59

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Front 60

Homeostasis

Back 60

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

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Incentive

Back 61

A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

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Hierarchy of needs

Back 62

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Front 63

Glucose

Back 63

The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger

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Set point

Back 64

The point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

Front 65

Emotion

Back 65

A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

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James-Lange theory

Back 66

The theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

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Cannon-Bard theory

Back 67

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

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Two-factor theory

Back 68

The Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

Front 69

Tend and befriend

Back 69

Under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

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Psychophysiological illness

Back 70

Literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

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Psychoneuroimmunology

Back 71

The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

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Lymphocytes

Back 72

The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system; B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

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Coronary heart disease

Back 73

The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

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Type A

Back 74

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

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Type B

Back 75

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

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Trait

Back 76

A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self report inventories and peer reports

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Personality inventory

Back 77

A questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits

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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

Back 78

The most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes

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Empirically derived test

Back 79

A test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

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Social-cognitive perspective

Back 80

Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context