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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are the three basic human memory processes?
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encoding, storage, retrieval
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what is encoding?
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-involves forming a memory code
ex. entering data through a keyboard |
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what is storage?
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-involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time
ex.saving data in file on hard disk |
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what is retrieval?
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-involves recovering information from memory stores
ex. calling up a file and displaying data on a moniter |
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what is attention?
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attention involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events
-the selection of input -you generally need to pay attention to information if you intend to remember it. -attention involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events |
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what are the levels of processing in encoding?
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structural, phonemic, semantic
-the deeper the processing, the longer lasting the memory code! |
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what is structural encoding?
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-it emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
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what is phonemic encoding?
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-it emphasizes what a word sounds like
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what is semantic encoding?
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-it emphasizes the meaning of verbal input and involves thinking about the objects and actions that the words represent
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iatrogenic
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a medical disorder caused by the diagnosis, manner, or treatment of a physician
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sensory memory
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-brief preservation of information in original sensory form
-visual/auditory- last approx. 1/4 of a second -this type of memory allows the sensation to linger briefly after the sensory stimulation is over |
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short-term memory
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-defined as a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed info for up to 20 seconds
-stm has a limited duration- information can only be kept there for a brief amount of time before it is lost, unless rehearsal occurs rehearsal- the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information-keeping it in use |
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Baddeley's model of working memory
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-consists of 4 components
1. Phonological rehearsal loop:- used to temporarily rehearse information 2. Visuospatial sketchpad:- used to hold and manipulate visual images 3. Executive control system:- Controls attention 4. Episodic buffer:- storage space used to integrate the work of the different components and provide and interface with long term memory |
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Long-term memory:
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-an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time
-LTM has an unlimited capacity, but it isn't 100% permanent, which is why memories fade over time |
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flash-bulb memories
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unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events
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schemas/their role in long-term memory
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schema: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event
-usually, we remember best the thing NOT in our schema (like the weird cheese in the grocery list) |
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sematic networks/ their role in long term memory
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sematic networks:consist of nodes representing concepts joined together by pathways that link related concepts
-this explains why thinking about butter helps you remember bread better |
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retrieval cues
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stimuli that help gain access to memories- such as hints, related info, or partial recollections
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context clues
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-often facilitate the retrieval of information. ex. when you go back to a town you haven't been in a while you get a ton of memories about it.
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misinformation effect
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occurs when participants' recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading, post event information
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source monitoring
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-source monitoring is the process of making inferences about the origins of memories
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source monitoring error
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- a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
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repression
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refers to the keeping of distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious.
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support of repressed memories
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-many researchers take repressed memories at face value, and that is IS common for young children and even adults to repress traumatizing events from the past
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skepticism of repressed memories
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-some researchers believe that you should not accept repressed memories at face value because it has been proven that false memories CAN be created
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three theories of forgetting
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Ineffective encoding
decay theory interference theory |
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ineffective encoding
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-sometimes you feel like you have forgotten something, when in reality you never really remembered it in the first place.
-sometimes called pseudo-forgetting, and is usually due to lack of attention |
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decay theory
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proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time
-if it is true, we forget because of the passage of time -although this hasn't been proven |
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interference theory
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proposes people forget infomation because of competition from other material
two types: retroactive and proactive |
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retroactive interference
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the new info impairs the ability to to retain the old info
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proactive interference
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the old info prevents the retention of new info
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hippocampus
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-has a major roll in memory
-people with extensive damage to the hippocampus are UNABLE to form or retain new memories -Alzheimer's disease |
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procedural memory
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houses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and emotional memories
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declarative memory
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handles factual information
2 parts: semantic and episodic |
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semantic
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general facts that are not time bound(meaning they are not tied to the time when the information was learned.)
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episodic
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personal facts that are time bound, autobiographical memory
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what are the three types of problems proposed by Greeno?
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1.problems of inducing structure
2.problems of arrangement 3.problems of transformation |
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problems of inducing structure
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problems where people are required to discover relations among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas
ex. series completion problems, and analogy problems |
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problems of arrangement
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where people arrange the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies come criterion.
-the parts can usually be arranged in many ways ex.string problems/anagrams - these types of problems are often solved by insight, a sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error |
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problems of transformation
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the person must carry out a sequence of transformation in order to reach a specific goal
ex. water jar problem |
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what are the 4 common barriers to effective problem solving?
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1.irrelevant information
2.functional fixedness 3.mental set 4.unnecessary constraints |
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irrelevant information
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information added to confuse you that really has nothing to do with the problem asked
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functional fixedness
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the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use- basically the inability to think outside the box!
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mental set
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exists when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past.
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unnecessary constraints-
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not being able to think outside the box. giving yourself restraints when they aren't actually present
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representativeness heuristic
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involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that.
-ignoring base rates. |
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availability heuristic
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involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind
ex. estimating divorce rate by recalling the number of divorces among your friends parents |
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conjunction fallacy
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occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone
-also due to the powerful nature of the representative heuristic |
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Binet
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made key breakthrough in 1904 regarding intelligence tests
-had "mental ages" which was like if a 4 year old acted like a 6 year old during the test their mental age was 6, not 4 |
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Terman
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revised Binet's test. Termans test used intelligence quotients. He divided the childs mental age by their chronological age and multiplied by 100. you were normal if you had a 100 because that meant your mental age and actual age were the same
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Wechsler
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was the first to devise an instrument to measure intelligence in adults. He is credited with two innovations in IQ testing. 1st his scales give more emphasis to nonverbal reasoning, yielding a verbal IQ, a performance IQ, and a full-scale IQ. 2nd he devised a new scoring system based on the normal distribution
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reliability
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refers to the measurement of consistency of a test. a reliable test produces the same results over and over again and has a high correlation when comparing two tests
-most modern IQ tests report reliable info, correlations are usually +.9 -although problems with patients such as low motivation and high anxiety can affect the results |
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validity
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refers to the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure
-IQ tests validly measure the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work, but they focus narrowly on a specific type of intelligence. -they are good at predicting academics, but not social or practical intelligence |
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sternberg
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argues that intelligence is a culturally defined concept. he says different manifestations of intelligent behavior are valued in different contexts
asserts that there are three aspects of intelligence 1.analytical intelligence 2.creative intelligence 3.practical intelligence |
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Gardner
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said that IQ tests are too narrow in focus, and that they generally focus on verbal and mathematical skills and exclude other important skills.
-came up with human intelligences(linguistic, spatial |
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developmental psychology
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the scientific study of how people change and how they stay the same (continuity) over their lifespan
-main focus is on development during childhood6 |
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in what two ways do we change?
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1.quantitative:height, weight, etc
2.qualitative: our sense of "who we are"(identity) |
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continuity
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some basic personality characteristics don't change much over a lifespan(temperament)
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development
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the sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death
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nature vs nurture
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nature=genetics affects personality
nurture=how you were raised affects personality |
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Piaget
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asserted that interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think
proposed 3 stages: 1.preoperational 2.concrete operational 3.formal operational |
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preoperational stage
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2-7 years
-development of symbolic thought continues -at 4 years old the child can understand most sentences, uses sentences longer than 4 words, can say their name, knows their sex and age, and uses pronouns limitations:no mastery of conservations-they don't understand that physical quantities remain constant even when they change shape or appearance |
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concrete operational stage
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7-11 years
-mental operations still applied only to images of tangible objects -mastery of conservations (decentration reversability) -mastery of heirarchical classification |
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nature vs nurture
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nature=genetics affects personality
nurture=how you were raised affects personality |
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infant-mother attachment
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attachement: refers to the close, emotional bonds that develop between infants and their caregivers
-infants attachment is NOT instant when they are born -by 6/8 months, babies have an intense attachment to their mothers - |
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Piaget
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asserted that interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think
proposed 4 stages: 1.sensorimotor 1.preoperational 2.concrete operational 3.formal operational |
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preoperational stage
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2-7 years
-development of symbolic thought continues -at 4 years old the child can understand most sentences, uses sentences longer than 4 words, can say their name, knows their sex and age, and uses pronouns limitations:no mastery of conservations-they don't understand that physical quantities remain constant even when they change shape or appearance |
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concrete operational stage
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7-11 years
-mental operations still applied only to images of tangible objects -mastery of conservations (decentration reversability) -mastery of heirarchical classification |
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formal operational
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11-adulthood
-mental operations applied to abstract ideas (7th grade algebra) -logical systematic thinking/problem solving (instead of simple trial and error) |
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sensorimotor stage
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birth-2 years
coordination of sensory imput and motor responses -development of object permanence |
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kohlberg
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devised a stage theory of moral development based upon subjects' responses to presented moral dilemmas
-he was not interested in a persons answer, just their answer -theorized three levels of moral development 1.preconventional 2.conventional 3.postconventional |
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preconventional
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children at this level think in terms of external authority
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conventional
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see rules as necessary for maintaining social order. accept the rules as their own, they internalize the rules to be virtuous and win approval from others
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postconventional
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involves working out a personal code of ethics
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