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320 Cards in this Set

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Intelligence
An overall capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment
g-factor
A general intellectual ability score that includes reasoning, memory, problem-solving ability, knowledge, and succesful adaption to one's environment
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
An index of intelligence based on mental age and chronological age
Mental age
One's average intellectual performance
Chronological age
One's age in years
What is the equation for IQ?
IQ = MA/CA X 100
Average IQ = 100 (when MA = CA)

(MA-mental age)
(CA-chronological age)
Deviation IQ
IQ scores based on one's relative standing in his or her age group
Deviation IQ
IQ scores based on one's relative standing in his or her age group
Stanford-Binet (SB) Intelligence Scale
A widely-accepted measure of intelligence
-Includes various intellectual questions for different ages of individuals
-Includes both verbal and nonverbal questions
-Was originally used only for children, but can now be used for people from age 2 to age 85+
-The 5th edition (SB5) is currently used
What edition of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is currently used?
The 5th edition (SB5)
What ages is the Stanford-Binet (SB) intelligence Scale used for?
Was originally used only for children, but can now be used for people from age 2 to age 85+
What does the Stanford-Binet (SB) Intelligence Scale include?
-Includes various intellectual questions for different ages of individuals-Includes both verbal and nonverbal questions
What are the cognitive factores measured on the SB5?
-Fluid reasoning
-Knowledge
-Quantitative reasoning
-Visual-spatial processing
-Working memory
Fluid reasoning
Assesses reasoning ability
Knowledge
Assesses familiarity with various types of information
Quantitative reasoning
Assesses the ability to solve numerical or math-related problems
Visual-spatial processing
Assesses the ability to put puzzles together and to copy geometric shapes
Working memory
Assesses short-term memory
What does the Wechsler Intelligence Test provide?
Provides an alternative to the Stanford-Binet
What are the Two forms of the Wechsler?
-Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

-Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
An intelligence test designed specifically for adults

-Was the first "adult" IQ test
-3rd edition (WAIS-III) is currently used?
What edition of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is currently used?
3rd edition (WAIS-III) is currently used
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
An intelligence test designed specifically for children

-May be used in people from age 6-16
-4th edition (WISC-IV) is currently used
What edition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is currently used?
4th edition (WISC-IV) is currently used
What ages may the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) be used in?
May be used in people from age 6-16
What do the WAIS and the WISC provide assessments of?
-Verbal intelligence

-Performance intelligence
Verbal intelligence
Intelligence measured via language- or symbol-oriented taskts
-e.g., answering questions involving vocabulary, general information, arithmetic, etc.
Performance intelligence
Intelligence measured via nonverbal tasks
-e.g., solving puzzles, assembling objects, completing pictures, etc.
Wwhat are Variations in Intelligence?
-Giftedness

-Mental retardation (developmentally disabled)
Giftedness
The possession of a high IQ or special talents or aptitues (e.g., creativity)
-e.g., an IQ of 130 or higher, or the ability to play classical music at age 5
Mental retardation (developmentally disabled)
The presence of a developmental disability, an abnormally low IQ score, or an impairment of adaptive behavior
-e.g., an IQ of 70 or lower, or the inability to perform basic functions such as eating, communicating, etc.
What are causes of mental retardation?
-Organic/physical disorders
-Metabolic disorders
-Genetic abnormalities
-Familial retardation
Organic/physical disorders
-Fetal damage due to prenatal influences such as disease, infection, or drugs
-Birth injuries (e.g., lack of oxygen during delivery)
Metabolic disorders
Disorders that affect energy production/use
Genetic abnormalities
Missing genes, extra genes, or defective genes
Familial retardation
Lack of nutrition, medical care, intellectual stimulation, and/or emotional support
What are the 8 types of intelligence?
-Language
-Logic and math
-Visual and spatial thinking
-Music
-Bodyily-kinesthetic skills
-Intrapersonal skills
-Interpersonal skills
-Naturalist skills
Language
Linguistic abilities
-e.g., writer, lawyer, comedian
Logic and math
Numerical abilities
-e.g., scientist, accountant, programmer
Visual and spatial thinking
Pictorial abilities
-e.g., engineer, inventor, artist
Music
Musical abilities
-e.g., composer, musician, music critic
Bodily-kinesthetic skills
Physical abilities
-e.g., athlete, dancer, surgeon
Intrapersonal skills
Self-knowledge
-e.g., psychologist, teacher, politician
Naturalist skills
Ability to understand nature
-e.g., biologist, organic farmer
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Artificial system (typically a computer program) capable of human-like problem solving or intelligent responding

-Is based on an extensive set of rules for each task
EX: challenge humans at chess, predict weather, tell you when to buy/sell stocks
Heredity studies
Examine relative IQ of twins, siblings, etc. who were raised together vs. apart
In heredity studies what influences intelligence?
There is clearly a genetic component; however, both nature and nurture influence intelligence.
Cognition
The process of thinking or mentally processing information (e.g., words, images, concepts, rules, and symbols
Image
A mental representation or icon that has picture-like qualities
Concept
An idea representing a category of related objects or events
Language
Words or symbols, and rules for combining them, that are used for thinking and communication
Concept Formation
The process of classifying information into meaningful categories
Positive instance
Object or event that belongs to a particular category
Negative instance
Object or event that does not belong to a particular category
Conceptual rule
A formal rule for deciding if an object or event is an example of a particular concept
Conjunctive concepts
"And" concepts that are defined by the presence of two or more features
-e.g., iPod must be small and play music
Relational concepts
A concept defined by the way in which an object relates to something else
-e.g., sister/brother, larger/smaller, above/below
Disjunctive concepts
"Either/or" concepts that are defined by the presence of at least one of several possible features
-e.g., a strilke in baseball (a swing/miss or a pitch over the plate or a foul ball)
-These are harder to learn
Prototypes
Ideal models that help us to identify concepts
-e.g., robin may be used as a prototype for "bird"
-Prototypes are especially helpful for complex stimuli
Denotative meaning
Exact definition of a term
-e.g., "naked" means "having no clothes"
Connotative meaning
The subjective, personal, or emotional meaning of a word/concept
-e.g., a nudist has a positive view of "naked," whereas a minister or a movie critic would have a more negative view
Faulty Concepts
Use of concepts that are inaccurate or faulty leads to thinking errors
Sterotypes (Faulty Concept)
Oversimplified concepts of various groups of people
All-or-nothing thinking (Faulty Concept)
One-dimensional thought in which we classify things as absolutely right or wrong, good or bad, etc.

-In actuality, things are rarely black or white. It is far more common to find shades of gray.
What are the Faulty Concepts?
-Stereotypes
-All-or-nothing thinking
Semantics
The study of meanings in words and language
Context
Text that surrounds a word and determines its meaning
-e.g., "shot" may have various meanings depending on its context

-"Tiger Woods had his best shot of the day."
-"An annual flu shot can help you stay healthy."
-"Everyone enjoyed a shot of tequilla."
Phonemes
The smallest units of sound of language (e.g., 't' sound in "cat," "stand," "tip," etc.)
Morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in a language, such as syllables or words
Grammar
A set of rules for combining language units into meaningful speech or writing
Syntax
Rules regarding word order
Transformation rules
The rules by which a sentence may be changed to different voices (e.g., present, past, future tenses)
Gestural languages
Languages that use signs and gestures rather than spoken words (e.g., American Sign Language (ASL)
-Washoe, a famous chimp, learned over 240 signs
Mechanical solution
Problem solving that is achieved by trial and error or by rote
Algorithm
A learned set of rules that always leads to the correct solution of a problem
Random search strategy
Trying possible solutions to a problem in a more or less random order
Heuristic
A strategy or technique that aids problem solving by limiting the number of possible solutions to be tried (however, this does not guarantee a solution)
Understanding
Deeper comprehension of a problem
Insight
A sudden mental reorganization of a problem that makes the solution obvious
What are Obstacles to Problem Solving?
-Fixation
-Emotional barriers
-Cultural barriers
-Learned barriers
-Perceptual barriers
Fixation
Tendency to get stuck or fixated on an incorrect solution or to disregard possible alternatives
Functional fixedness
Problem solving rigidity caused by an inability to consider new used for familiar objects
Emotional barriers
inhibition, fear of failure, fear of embarrassment, etc.
Cultural barriers
high priority on structure/logic rather than playfulness/expirimentation
Learned barriers
rigidity, functional fixedness, overreliance upon rules, etc.
Perceptual barriers
habits, routines, etc
What are Types of Thinking?
-Inductive thought
-Deductive thought
-Logical thought
-Illogical thought
Inductive thought
Using specific facts/observations to form generalizations
(specific --> general)
Deductive thought
Using general principles to make specific predictions
(general --> specific)
Logical thought
Thought that involves the use of reasoning and/or formal rules
Illogical thought
Thought that is intuitive, haphazard or irrational
What 3 terms are included in Creative Thinking?
-Fluency
-Flexibility
-Originality
Fluency
The total number of ideas/solutions produced
Flexibility
The number of different types of solutions generated
Originality
The degree to which solutions are novel or unusual
Convergent thinking
Many thoughts or variations converging on a single answer; conventional thinking
Divergent thinking
Many possiblities developing from a single starting point; creative thinking
what are the Tests of Creativity?
-Unusual uses test
-Consequences test
-Anagrams test
Unusual uses test
Come up with as many uses for a particular object as possible
-e.g., tell me all the things you can do with a rubber band
Consequences test
List all of the consequences that would result if a single change were made in the world
-e.g., what would happen if everyone could read everyone else's thoughts?
Anagrams test
Create as many new words as possible from the letters of a particular words
-e.g., how many words can be created from CREATIVITY?
Motivation
Internal processes that initiate, direct, sustain, and terminate behavior
How is motivation produced?
-Internal needs
-External incentives
Internal needs
An internal lack of deficiency(e.g., hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc.)
External incentives
Desirable goals or outcomes (e.g., success, statues, approval, etc.)
Incentive value
The value or "pull" of a goal that goes above and beyond its ability to satisfy a need
Draw the Model of Motivation
NEED-->DRIVE-->RESPONSE-->GOAL-->(NEED RDUCTION)
-->back to need
Need
An internal lack of deficiency that may energize behavior (e.g., lack of food)
Drive
The psychological expression of internal needs or valued goals (e.g., hunger)
Response
Any action or other identifiable behavior (e.g., obtaining food)
Goal
The target or objective of motivated behavior (e.g., nourishment, satiation)
What are the 3 types of Motives/Drives?
-Primary motives
-Stimulus motives
-Secondary motives
Primary motives
Innate motives that are based on biological needs that are necessary for survival
-e.g., hunger, thirst, pain avoidance, respiration, sleep, regulation of body temperature, etc.
Stimulus motives
Innate needs for stimulation and information (not necessary for survival)
-e.g., curiosity, exploration, activity, etc.
Secondary motives
Motives based on learned needs, drives, and goals
-e.g., achievement, approval, statues, affiliation, etc.
Homeostasis (Primary Motive)
A steady state of bodily equilibrium
-e.g., blood pressure, body temperature, etc.
Circadian rhythms (Primary Motive)
Cyclical patterns of biological activity that repeat themselves roughly every 24 hours
What is the Internal Influence on Hunger?
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Small area at the base of the brain that regulates many motives, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
Lateral hypothalamus
Initiates eating
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Terminates eating
What are the External Influences on Hunger?
-Taste
-Emotional eating
-Cultural factores
-External eating cues
External eating cues
External stimuli that encourage hunger or elicit eating, even when you are full
-e.g., the smell of your favorite food
Taste
We are drawn to a variety of different foods
Emotional eating
Many people eat when they are anxious, sad, lonely, angry, or bored
Cultural factors
Certain foods are more appealing due to cultural factores, family traditions, etc.
Anorexia nervosa
An eating disorder that involves active self-starvation or a sustained loss of appetite
Bulimia nervosa
An eating disorder that involves excessive eating (binging) followed by self-induced vomiting (purging) or taking laxatives
What is true about eating disorders?
-These disorders are often associated w/ distortions in body image and need to be treated by a professional
-Both of these disorders can seriously damage health, and can even be life-threatening
Extracellular thirst
Thirst produced when water is lost from the fluids surrounding the cells of your body
-May be caused by bleeding, vomiting, sweating, diarrhea, or alcohol consumption
Intracellular thirst
Thirst caused by increased concentrations of salt, which draws water out of cells and causes them to shrink
-May be caused by eating foods high in sodium
Pain avoidance
An episodic drive (one that occurs in distinct episodes) that is initiated when bodily damage has occurred or is imminent.
-In contrast, hunger, thirst, and sleep occur in fairly regular cycles each day.
What does pain promt us to do?
Pain prompts us to avoid or eliminate sources of discomfort
-In contrast, most other drives cause us to actively seek something (food, drink, sleep, etc.).
Sex drive
The strength of one's motivation to engage in sexual behavior
-Is not necessary for individual survival, but is essential for group survival
-May be influenced by hormone fluctuations
Estrogens
A family of female sex hormones
Stimulus motive (aka stimulus drive)
Innate need for information, exploration, and sensory input
-Helps us identify sources of food, shelter, danger, etc.
Arousal
Activation of the body and nervous system
Arousal theory
Assumes that people try to maintain a constant, ideal level of arousal (activation)
-When arousal is too low, we feel bored, but when arousal is too high, we become anxious
-Thus, we prefer to keep arousal at moderate levels
-Ideal level or arousal depends on task complexity
Yerkes-Dodson law
Simple tasks are performed best at higher levels of arousal, whereas complex tasks performed best at lower levels of arousal
-e.g., need to be pumped up for a marathon run (simple task) but need to be calmer to play a game of chess (complex task)
Sensation seeking
The tendency to seek high levels of arousal (e.g., skydiving, bungee jumping, etc.)
Test anxiety
High levels of arousal and anxiety that seriously impair performance
Strategies for coping with test anxiety
-Preperation
-Relaxation
-Rehearsal
-Restructuring thoughts
Social motives
Learned motives that are acquired as part of growing up in a particular culture
-e.g., success, achievement, approval, power, belonging, etc.
Need for achievement (nAch)
The desire to excel or to meet some internalized standard of excellence
Need for power
The desire to have social impact or control over others
Maslow's Hierarchy of human needs
Maslow's ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency
-Needs that are more powerful influence your behavior to a greater degree
Basic needs (Maslow)
First four needs of the hierarchy
-Physiological needs (food, shelter, etc.)
-Safety and security
-Love and belonging
-Esteem and self-esteem
Growth needs (Maslow)
Higher-level needs associated with self-actualization (achieving one's full potential)
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation that occurs in the absence of an obvious external reward
-e.g, genuine enjoyment of an activity, sense of satisfaction in the quality of one's work, etc.
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation based on obvious external rewards or obligations
-e.g., course grades, pay, promotion opportunities, bonuses, rewards, approval, etc.
Emotion
A state characterized by physiological arousal, changes in facial expression, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings
Adaptive behaviors
Behaviors that help us to survive and adjust to changing conditions
-e.g., fight or flight (attacking or fleeing), altruism (helping others), seeking safety/comfort, reproduction
-Emotions also serve an adaptive purpose
Physiological changes
Changes in heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary responses that accompany emotion
-Primarily caused by activity in the sympathetic nervous system and release of the hormone adrenaline by the adrenal glands
Moods
Low-intensity emotional states that can last for hours or even days
-Moods are the mildest forms of emotion
-Moods are closely tied to circadian rhythms
Emotional expressions
Outward signs of what a person is feeling
-e.g., trembling hands, vocal changes, tense posture, contorted expressions
Emotional feelings
A person's private, subjective experience of his/her emotions
Primary emotions
The eight most basic emotions (as identified by Robert Plutchik)
-Fear, suprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy, and trust (acceptance)
-Each of these emotions can vary in intensity
-The primary emotions can also be combined to create other emotions
Wwhat are the eight most basic emotions?
-Fear
-Surprise
-Sadness
-Disgust
-Anger
-Anticipation
-Joy
-Trust (acceptance)
Is it possible to experience positive and negative emotions at the same time?
Yes
-Positive emotions are primarily processed in the left hemisphere
-Negative emotions are typically processed in the right hemisphere
Autonomic nervous system
The neural system that connects the brain w/ internal organs and glands

-Controls automatic (involuntary) functions
-e.g., heart rate, blood pressure
-Is divided into two branches:

Sympathetic division (activates the body)

Parasympathetic division (quiets the body)
Sympathetic nervous system
-Activates/arouses the body in emergency situations
-Prepares the brain/body for the fight or flight response
-Activates necessary functions (e.g., heart rate) and deactivates nonessential activities (e.g., digestion)
Parasympathetic nervous system
-Reverses emotional arousal and calms the body
-Keeps vital processes (e.g., breathing, heart rate, digestion) at normal levels
-Is most active following an emotional event
Polygraph (aka "lie detector")
A device that records heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and galvanic skin response (measured via perspiration)
What different types of questions does a polygraph test operator intermingle?
-Irrelevant questions (neutral; no anxiety intended)
-Control questions (produce anxiety in most people)
-Relevant questions (should only produce anxiety if answered untruthfully, e.g., by guilty parties)
In actualit, what does a polygraph machine measure?
emotional arousal, not truth vs. lying
Kinesics
The study of communication through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions
Relaxation/tension
(Common body language expression)
-Body casually positioned and/or leaning back vs. more formally positioned and sitting up
liking/disliking
-Leaning toward a person or object vs. leaning away from a person or object
how many expressions can the face produce?
Up to 20,000 expressions, making it the most expressive part of the body
-Most of these are facial blends (mixes of two or more basic facial expressions)
What are the 3 basic dimensions of facial expressions?
-Pleasantness-Unpleasantness
-Attention-Rejection
-Activation
Pleasantness-Unpleasantness
The degree of pleasure or displeasure a person is experiencing
Attention-Rejection
The degree of attention that is given to a person or object
Activation
The degree of arousal a person is experiencing
James-Lange theory
Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of arousal
-e.g., see bear, run and become aroused, feel fear
Cannon-Bard theory
The thalamus causes bodily arousal and emotional feelings to occur simultaneously
-e.g., see bear, activate thalamus, bodily arousal/fear
Schachter's cognitive theory
Emotions occur when a label is applied to general physical arousal
-e.g., see bear, become aroused, decide if bear is friendly or not, and then label emotion accordingly
Attribution
The mental process of assigning causes to events
-In emotion, attribution is the process of explaining bodily arousal by attempting to identify its source
Facial feedback hypothesis
Awareness of our facial expressions impacts our emotional experience
-e.g, sensation of frowning creates feelings of angst
Emotional appraisal
Evaluating the personal meaning of a stimulus or situation
-e.g., interpreting an affront as stressful vs. comical
Emotional intelligence
Emotional competence, including empathy, self-control, self-awareness, and other skills
-Involves accepting all feelings and managing them effectively
-Emotional intelligence can be learned
-Once learned, it can be used to enhance thinking and decision making
Personality
A person's unique and relatively stable pattern of thinking, emotions, and behavior; consistency in who you are, who you have been, and who you will become
Character
Personal characteristics that have been judged or evaluated; a person's desirable or undesirable qualities
Temperament
The genetic (hereditary( aspects of personality
-e.g., sensitivity, activity levels, prevailing mood, irritability, and adaptability
Personality trait
A stable, enduring quality that a person displays in most situations
-Traits are typically inferred from behavior
-Traits may be used to predict future behavior
Personality type
A style of personality that is defined by a group of related traits
Introversion vs. Extroversion
(Carl Jung)
Introver: A shy, reserved person whose attention is focused inward
Extrover: A bold, outgoing person whose attention is directed outward
Self-Concept
A person's perceptions, ideas, and feelings about his or her own personality traits
-These are created and continually influenced by life experiences
Self-Esteem
One's personal self-regard or evaluation of oneself as worthwile
-High self-esteem: positive self-evaluation
-Low self-esteem: negative self evaluation
Trait theories
Focus on the traits (qualities) that make up personality and how they relate to behavior
Psychodynamic theories
Focus on the inner workings of personalityl, such as internal conflicts and struggles
Behavioristic and social learning theories
Emphasize the external environment and the influence of conditioning and learning
Humanistic theories
Emphasize personal growth and private, subjective experience
Common traits
Characteristics that are shared by most members of a particular culture
Individual traits
Characteristics that define a person's unique qualities
Cardinal trait
A trait that is so basic that all of a person's activites relate to it
-e.g., compassion for Mother Teresa
Central traits
Core traits that provide the basic building blocks of personality
-e.g., sociable, honest, optimistic, intelligent
Secondary traits
Traits that are relatively superficial
-e.g., food preferences, musical tastes, etc.
Source traits
Basic, underlying traits or dimensions of personality
-Cattel identified 16 source traits using a subjective process
-He created a personality test called thee 16PF that provides a snapshot of personality
Surface traits
Visible, observable characteristics of personality
-Surface traits that are often reflections of source traits
The "Big Five" Factors of Personality (Costa &McCrae, 1990)

BIG 5!!!
Reduced Cattell's 16 personality factors to 5
-Extroversion
-Agreeableness
-Conscientiousness
-Neuroticism
-Openness
Behavioral genetics
The study of inherited behavioral traits and tendencies
Trait-situation interactions
The influence that external settings or circumstances have on a person's expression of personality traits
What do psychodynamic theories do?
Psychodynamic theories investigate what drives, conflicts, and energies animate us.
Psychoanalytic theory (Freud)
Personality theory that emphasizes unconscious forces and conflicts

-As a doctor, Freud believed his patients' problems were more emotional than physical
-Freud used hypnosis in an attempt to reveal people's unconscious thoughts and motives
Freud viewed Personality as being directed by what three mental structures?
-Id
-Ego
-Superego
Id
The primitive, unconscious part of personality; it is irrational, self-serving, and impulsive
Ego
The executive part of personality that directs rational behavior
Superego
A judge or censor for thoughts and actions
More on the Id
-is composed of innate biological instincts and urges; is irrational, impulsive, self-serving, and unconscious
-Relies on the ego to carry out its wishes
-Is driven by the pleasure principle (desire for instant gratification with no concern for future consequences)
-The id expresses one's libido (The pleasure-driven force that engergizes the personality)
-The libido flows from Eros (one's life instincts or urge to survive) to one's Thanatos (one's death instincts or destructive urges)
More on the Ego
-Serves an executive function; directs the energies of the id
-Is the "visible" part of personality
-Is the system of thinking, planning, problem solving and deciding
-Is guided by the reality principle (delay action until it is practical and/or appropriate)
More on the Superego
-Acts as a judge or censor for the thoughts and actions of the ego

The superego has two components:
-Conscience: Reflects actions for which a person has been punished
-Gulit results when its standards are not met
-Ego ideal: Reflects all behavior one's parents approved or rewarded
-Pride results when its standards are not met
More on id, ego, superego
The ego is always caught in the middle between the id's desires for immediate gratification and the superego's desires for moral behavior
Neurotic anxiety
Caused by id impulses that the ego can barely control
Moral anxiety
Caused by threats of punishment from the superego
Freudian personality development
-Freud believed that the core of personality is formed by age 6
-He contended that personality develops through a series of four psychosexual stages
-Everyone progresses through the same stages in the same order
Fixation
Unresolved conflict or emotional hang-up caused by overindulgence or frustration
Oral Stage (Age 0-1)
-Infants are compelled to put things in their mouths
-Fixation during this stage produces an oral-dependent personality
-Fixation early in the oral stage leads people to be gullible, passive, need lots of attention
-Fixation late in the oral stage leads people to be aggressive, cynical, exploitative, argumentative
Anal Stage (Ages 1-3)
-Child's attention shifts to process of elimination
-They dynamics of toilet training influence development
-Children exercise control/comliance (or lack thereof) as a way of gaining approval or rebelling
-Fixation leads to one of two types of personality:
-Anal-retentive personality (obstinate, stubborn, stingy, orderly, or compulsively clean)
-Anal-expulsive personality (disorderly, messy, destructive, or cruel)
Phallic Stage (Ages 3-6)
8=====D
Child becomes fascinated with the opposite-sex parent
-Bodys may develop an Oedipus conflict (rivalry with father for affection of mother; eventually identifies with father and seeks to emulate him)
-Girls may develop an Electra conflict (compete with mother for affection of father; eventually identifies with mother)
Latency (Age 6 - Puberty)
-Psychosexual development is dormant
-Children focus on same-sex friendships
Gential Stage (from puperty on)
-Upswing of sexual energy activates all of the unresolved conflicts of earlier years
-Explains why adolescence is filled with emotion and turmoil
-Is marked by a mature capacity for love and the realization of adult sexuality
Behavioral personality theory
A model of personality that emphasize learning and observable behavior
-Personality is acquired via operant and classical conditioning, reinforcement, etc.
Learning theorist
Believes that learning shapes our behavior and explains personality
Situaltional determinants
External conditions that influence our behaviors
Social learning theor (Rotter)
An explanation that combines learning principles, cognition, and the effects of social relationships
Psychological situation
The way in which a persona interprets or defines a given situation
Expectancy
Expectation about the effect a response (behavior) will have, particularly with regard to reinforcement
Reinforcement value
Subjective value attached to a particular activity or reinforcer
Self-efficacy
Belief in your own ability to produce a desired result
Self-reinforcement
Praising or rewarding oneself for having made a particular response (e.g., getting a good grade)
Social reinforcement
Praise, attention, and/or approval from others
Imitation
Desire to act like an admired person
Humanistic theory
Focuses on human experience, problems, potential, and ideals. The person you are is largely the product of all the choices you have made.
Self-Actualization (Maslow)
The process of fully developing one's personal potential
Human nature
The traits, qualities, potential, and behavior patterns that best characterize humans
Free choice
One's ability to choose that is not controlled by genetics, learning, or unconscious forces
Subjective experience
Private perceptions of reality
Humanism: what did Carl Rogers emphasize?
Carl Rogers enphasize the human capacity for inner peace and happiness
Fully-functioning person
One who lives in harmony with his/her deepes feelings and impulses
Self
A continuously evolving conception of one's personal identity
Self-image (aka self-concept)
One's subjective perception of one's body and personality
Ideal self
An idealized image of oneself; the person one wishes to be
True self
A realistic image of oneself; the person that one actually is
Incongruence
A condition of discrepancy between the three entities:
-Self-image
-Ideal self
-True self
Congruence
A condition of harmony between these three entities:
-Self-image
-Ideal self
-True self
Conditions of worht (Rogerian Concept)
Internal standards used to judge the value of one's thoughts, actions, feelings, or experiences
-Rogers attributed many adult problems to the use of these standards
-He suggested that people replace conditions of worth with organismic valuing (a natural, undistored, full-body reaction to an experience)
Positive self-regard
Thinking of oneself as a good, lovable, worthwhile person
Unconditional positive regard
Unshakable love and approval from others, given without qualification
Positive self-regard (Rogerian Concept)
Thinking of onself as a good, lovable, worthwhle person
Unconditional positive regard (Rogerian Concept)
Unshakable love and approval from others, given without qualification
Personality Assessment Techniques
-Interviews
-Direct observation
-Personality questionnaires
-Projective tests
Interview
A face-to-face meeting designed to gain info about someone's personality, current psychological state, or personal history
Unstructered interview
The conversation is informal, and topics are discussed as they arise
Structured interview
The conversation follows a prearranged plan using a series of planned question
What are some limitations of interviews?
-interviewers' preconceptions or biases can color their perceptions of the interviewee
-The personality of the interviewer may influence the interviewee's responses and/or behavior
-Interviewees are putting their best foot foward (not always representative of future behavior)
-Halo effect
Halo effect
Interviewer's tendency to generalize one favorable (or unfavorable) characteristic as representative of all aspects of the interviewee
Direct observation
People watching; observing behavior as it occurs
Behavioral assessment
Recording the frequency of specific behaviors
Personality questionnaires
Paper-and-pencil tests that reveal personality characteristics
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
-One of the most well-known and widely used objective personality questionnaires
-Is composed of 567 true/false items
-Measures 10 aspects of personality
Projective tests
Psychological tests that ask people to describe amiguous stimuli
Rorshach technique
A projective test comprised of 10 standardized inkblots
-People are asked to describe what they see in each inkblot
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A projective test featuring 20 sketches of life scenes and situations
-People are asked to make up stories about each sketch
Health psychology
Uses behavioral principles to prevent illness and promote health
Behavioral medicine
Applies psychology to the management of medical problems
Lifestyle diseases
Diseases related to health-damaging personal habits
Behavioral risk factors
Behaviors that increase the chances of disease, injury, or premature death
Disease-prone personality
Personality type associated with poor health; person tends to be chronically depressed, anxious, and hostile
Refusal skills training
Stupid program that teaches young people how to resist pressure to smoke or use other drugs
Life skills training
Teahces stress reduction, self-protection, decision making, self-control, and social skills
Wellness
A positive state of good health and well-being; more than the absence of disease
Stress
Mental and physical condition that occurs when a person must adjust or adapt to the environment
-Is typically generated by unpleasant events
Eustress
Positive stress
-Is typically generated by activities that are challenging, rewarding, and energizing
Stress reaction
Physical response to stress that involves arousal of the autonomic nervous system
General adaption syndrome
A series of bodily reactions to prolonged stress
What are the three stages of General adaption syndrome?
1. Alarm reaction: Body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor
2. Stage of resistance: Bodily adjustments to stress stabilize, but at high physical cost
3. Stage of exhaustion: Body's resources are drained and serious health consequences occur
Psychoneuroimmunology
Study of links among behavior, stress, disease, and the immune system
Immune system
Mobilizes bodily defenses like white blood cells against invading microbes and other disease agents
Stressor
An environmental condition or event that challenges or threatens a person
Pressure
A stressful condition that occurs when urgent external demands or expectations must be met
Stress (and potential physical damage) are magnified when emotional shocks are:
-intense or repeated
-unpredictable
-uncontrollabe
-linked to pressure
Primary appraisal
Deciding whether a situation is relevant or irrelevant, positive or threatening
Secondary appraisal
Assessing one's resources and deciding how to cope with a threat or a challenge
what is just as threatening as actual lack of control?
Perceived lack of control
Emotion-focused coping
Managing or controlling one's emotional reactions to the stressful situation
Problem-focused coping
Managing or correctiong the distressing situation
Frustration
A negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from reaching desired goals
External frustration
Based on external conditions that impede progress toward a goal (e.g., delays, failure, rejection, loss, etc.)
Personal frustration
Caused by personal characteristics that impede progress toward a goal
Aggression
Any response made with the intention of doing harm
Displaced aggression
Redirecting aggression to a target other than the source of one's frustration
Scapegoating
Blaming a person or group for conditions they did not create
Escape
Leaving the source of frustration (e.g., dropping out of school) or withdrawing (e.g., apathy)
Conflict
Stress that occurs when a person must choose between incompatible or contradictory alternatives
Approach-approach conflict
Choosing between two positive, desirable alternatives
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Choosing between two negative, undesirable alternatives
Approach-avoidance conflict
Being attracted to and repelled by the same goal or activity
-A central trait of this type of conflict is ambivalence (mixed positive and negative feelings)
draw examples of each type of conflict
see drawing
Anxiety
Feelings of tension, uneasiness, apprehension, worry, and vulnerability (we are motivated to avoid this)
Defense mechanism
A habitual and often unconscious psychological process used to reduce anxiety
-Are used to avoid, deny, or distort sources of anxiety
-Protect idealized self-image so we can live with ourselves
-If used short term, can help us get through everyday situations
-If used long term, we may end up not living in reality
Denial
Primitive defense in which reality is rejected
Repression
When painful thoughts and memories are held out of our awareness
Reaction formation
Impulses are repressed and the opposite behavior is exaggerated
Regression
Returning to an earlier, less demanding situation or habit (may involve less mature behavior)
Rationalization
Justifying personal actions by providing "rational" but false reasons for them
Compensation
Efforts to counteract a weakness or sense of inferiority by excelling in other areas
Sublimation
Working off unmet desires or unacceptable impulses by channeling the energy into acceptable activities
Learned helplessness
Acquired (learned) inability to overcome obstacles and avoid aversive stimuli; learned passivity and inaction to aversive stimuli
-Occurs when events appear to be uncontrollabe
-May feel helpless if failure is attributed to lasting, general factors
Deperession
State of despondence characterized by feelings of powerlessness and hopelessness
-One of the most common mental problems
-Symptoms: Loss of appetite or sex drive, decreased activity, sleeping too much
Matery Training
A technique that reinforces responses that lead to mastery of a threat or control over one's environment
-Combats learned helplessness and depression by inspiring hope and persistence
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
A scale that rates the impact of various life events on the likelihood of contracting illness
-Expresses the impact of live events in terms of life change units (LCUs) (numerical values assigned to each life event)
-Provides a rough idea of stress (not foolproof)
-Are positive life events (e.g., getting married, having a child) always stressful?
-People differ greatly in their reactions to stress
Psychosomatic disorders
Psychological factors contribute to actual bodily damage or to damaging changes in bodily functioning
-Respiratory and gstrointestinal complaints are most common
Hypochondriac
A person who complains about illnesses that appear to be imaginary
-Distinctly different from psychosomatic disorders because no physical basis can be found
Biofeedback
Provides a person with info about his or her ongoing bodily activites
-Aids voluntary regulation of bodily states such as blood pressure, heart rate, etc.
-Helpful but not an instant cure
-May help relieve certain types of headaches, chronic pain,k epileptic siezures, and insomnia
Type A personality
Personality type characterized by time urgency and chronic anger or hostility
-Driven, ambitious, competitive, etc.
-Associated with elevated risk of heart disease and increased risk of heart attack
Type B personality
All personality types other than Type As
-Unlikely to have a heart attack
Hardy personality
Personality type associated with superior stress resistance
-Harbor a sense of personal commitment to self, work, family, and other stabilizing values
-Possess a sense of control over one's life and work
-Tend to view life as a series of challenges rather than threats or problems
Stress management
The use of behavioral strategies to reduce stress and improve coping skills
Progressive relaxtion
Produces deep relaxation throughout the body by tightening all muscles in an area and then relaxing them
Guided imagery
Deliberate visualization of images that are calming, relaxing, or beneficial
-Exerxise and meditation are also beneficial