Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
320 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Intelligence
|
An overall capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment
|
|
g-factor
|
A general intellectual ability score that includes reasoning, memory, problem-solving ability, knowledge, and succesful adaption to one's environment
|
|
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
|
An index of intelligence based on mental age and chronological age
|
|
Mental age
|
One's average intellectual performance
|
|
Chronological age
|
One's age in years
|
|
What is the equation for IQ?
|
IQ = MA/CA X 100
Average IQ = 100 (when MA = CA) (MA-mental age) (CA-chronological age) |
|
Deviation IQ
|
IQ scores based on one's relative standing in his or her age group
|
|
Deviation IQ
|
IQ scores based on one's relative standing in his or her age group
|
|
Stanford-Binet (SB) Intelligence Scale
|
A widely-accepted measure of intelligence
-Includes various intellectual questions for different ages of individuals -Includes both verbal and nonverbal questions -Was originally used only for children, but can now be used for people from age 2 to age 85+ -The 5th edition (SB5) is currently used |
|
What edition of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is currently used?
|
The 5th edition (SB5)
|
|
What ages is the Stanford-Binet (SB) intelligence Scale used for?
|
Was originally used only for children, but can now be used for people from age 2 to age 85+
|
|
What does the Stanford-Binet (SB) Intelligence Scale include?
|
-Includes various intellectual questions for different ages of individuals-Includes both verbal and nonverbal questions
|
|
What are the cognitive factores measured on the SB5?
|
-Fluid reasoning
-Knowledge -Quantitative reasoning -Visual-spatial processing -Working memory |
|
Fluid reasoning
|
Assesses reasoning ability
|
|
Knowledge
|
Assesses familiarity with various types of information
|
|
Quantitative reasoning
|
Assesses the ability to solve numerical or math-related problems
|
|
Visual-spatial processing
|
Assesses the ability to put puzzles together and to copy geometric shapes
|
|
Working memory
|
Assesses short-term memory
|
|
What does the Wechsler Intelligence Test provide?
|
Provides an alternative to the Stanford-Binet
|
|
What are the Two forms of the Wechsler?
|
-Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
-Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) |
|
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
|
An intelligence test designed specifically for adults
-Was the first "adult" IQ test -3rd edition (WAIS-III) is currently used? |
|
What edition of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is currently used?
|
3rd edition (WAIS-III) is currently used
|
|
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
|
An intelligence test designed specifically for children
-May be used in people from age 6-16 -4th edition (WISC-IV) is currently used |
|
What edition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is currently used?
|
4th edition (WISC-IV) is currently used
|
|
What ages may the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) be used in?
|
May be used in people from age 6-16
|
|
What do the WAIS and the WISC provide assessments of?
|
-Verbal intelligence
-Performance intelligence |
|
Verbal intelligence
|
Intelligence measured via language- or symbol-oriented taskts
-e.g., answering questions involving vocabulary, general information, arithmetic, etc. |
|
Performance intelligence
|
Intelligence measured via nonverbal tasks
-e.g., solving puzzles, assembling objects, completing pictures, etc. |
|
Wwhat are Variations in Intelligence?
|
-Giftedness
-Mental retardation (developmentally disabled) |
|
Giftedness
|
The possession of a high IQ or special talents or aptitues (e.g., creativity)
-e.g., an IQ of 130 or higher, or the ability to play classical music at age 5 |
|
Mental retardation (developmentally disabled)
|
The presence of a developmental disability, an abnormally low IQ score, or an impairment of adaptive behavior
-e.g., an IQ of 70 or lower, or the inability to perform basic functions such as eating, communicating, etc. |
|
What are causes of mental retardation?
|
-Organic/physical disorders
-Metabolic disorders -Genetic abnormalities -Familial retardation |
|
Organic/physical disorders
|
-Fetal damage due to prenatal influences such as disease, infection, or drugs
-Birth injuries (e.g., lack of oxygen during delivery) |
|
Metabolic disorders
|
Disorders that affect energy production/use
|
|
Genetic abnormalities
|
Missing genes, extra genes, or defective genes
|
|
Familial retardation
|
Lack of nutrition, medical care, intellectual stimulation, and/or emotional support
|
|
What are the 8 types of intelligence?
|
-Language
-Logic and math -Visual and spatial thinking -Music -Bodyily-kinesthetic skills -Intrapersonal skills -Interpersonal skills -Naturalist skills |
|
Language
|
Linguistic abilities
-e.g., writer, lawyer, comedian |
|
Logic and math
|
Numerical abilities
-e.g., scientist, accountant, programmer |
|
Visual and spatial thinking
|
Pictorial abilities
-e.g., engineer, inventor, artist |
|
Music
|
Musical abilities
-e.g., composer, musician, music critic |
|
Bodily-kinesthetic skills
|
Physical abilities
-e.g., athlete, dancer, surgeon |
|
Intrapersonal skills
|
Self-knowledge
-e.g., psychologist, teacher, politician |
|
Naturalist skills
|
Ability to understand nature
-e.g., biologist, organic farmer |
|
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
|
Artificial system (typically a computer program) capable of human-like problem solving or intelligent responding
-Is based on an extensive set of rules for each task EX: challenge humans at chess, predict weather, tell you when to buy/sell stocks |
|
Heredity studies
|
Examine relative IQ of twins, siblings, etc. who were raised together vs. apart
|
|
In heredity studies what influences intelligence?
|
There is clearly a genetic component; however, both nature and nurture influence intelligence.
|
|
Cognition
|
The process of thinking or mentally processing information (e.g., words, images, concepts, rules, and symbols
|
|
Image
|
A mental representation or icon that has picture-like qualities
|
|
Concept
|
An idea representing a category of related objects or events
|
|
Language
|
Words or symbols, and rules for combining them, that are used for thinking and communication
|
|
Concept Formation
|
The process of classifying information into meaningful categories
|
|
Positive instance
|
Object or event that belongs to a particular category
|
|
Negative instance
|
Object or event that does not belong to a particular category
|
|
Conceptual rule
|
A formal rule for deciding if an object or event is an example of a particular concept
|
|
Conjunctive concepts
|
"And" concepts that are defined by the presence of two or more features
-e.g., iPod must be small and play music |
|
Relational concepts
|
A concept defined by the way in which an object relates to something else
-e.g., sister/brother, larger/smaller, above/below |
|
Disjunctive concepts
|
"Either/or" concepts that are defined by the presence of at least one of several possible features
-e.g., a strilke in baseball (a swing/miss or a pitch over the plate or a foul ball) -These are harder to learn |
|
Prototypes
|
Ideal models that help us to identify concepts
-e.g., robin may be used as a prototype for "bird" -Prototypes are especially helpful for complex stimuli |
|
Denotative meaning
|
Exact definition of a term
-e.g., "naked" means "having no clothes" |
|
Connotative meaning
|
The subjective, personal, or emotional meaning of a word/concept
-e.g., a nudist has a positive view of "naked," whereas a minister or a movie critic would have a more negative view |
|
Faulty Concepts
|
Use of concepts that are inaccurate or faulty leads to thinking errors
|
|
Sterotypes (Faulty Concept)
|
Oversimplified concepts of various groups of people
|
|
All-or-nothing thinking (Faulty Concept)
|
One-dimensional thought in which we classify things as absolutely right or wrong, good or bad, etc.
-In actuality, things are rarely black or white. It is far more common to find shades of gray. |
|
What are the Faulty Concepts?
|
-Stereotypes
-All-or-nothing thinking |
|
Semantics
|
The study of meanings in words and language
|
|
Context
|
Text that surrounds a word and determines its meaning
-e.g., "shot" may have various meanings depending on its context -"Tiger Woods had his best shot of the day." -"An annual flu shot can help you stay healthy." -"Everyone enjoyed a shot of tequilla." |
|
Phonemes
|
The smallest units of sound of language (e.g., 't' sound in "cat," "stand," "tip," etc.)
|
|
Morphemes
|
The smallest units of meaning in a language, such as syllables or words
|
|
Grammar
|
A set of rules for combining language units into meaningful speech or writing
|
|
Syntax
|
Rules regarding word order
|
|
Transformation rules
|
The rules by which a sentence may be changed to different voices (e.g., present, past, future tenses)
|
|
Gestural languages
|
Languages that use signs and gestures rather than spoken words (e.g., American Sign Language (ASL)
-Washoe, a famous chimp, learned over 240 signs |
|
Mechanical solution
|
Problem solving that is achieved by trial and error or by rote
|
|
Algorithm
|
A learned set of rules that always leads to the correct solution of a problem
|
|
Random search strategy
|
Trying possible solutions to a problem in a more or less random order
|
|
Heuristic
|
A strategy or technique that aids problem solving by limiting the number of possible solutions to be tried (however, this does not guarantee a solution)
|
|
Understanding
|
Deeper comprehension of a problem
|
|
Insight
|
A sudden mental reorganization of a problem that makes the solution obvious
|
|
What are Obstacles to Problem Solving?
|
-Fixation
-Emotional barriers -Cultural barriers -Learned barriers -Perceptual barriers |
|
Fixation
|
Tendency to get stuck or fixated on an incorrect solution or to disregard possible alternatives
|
|
Functional fixedness
|
Problem solving rigidity caused by an inability to consider new used for familiar objects
|
|
Emotional barriers
|
inhibition, fear of failure, fear of embarrassment, etc.
|
|
Cultural barriers
|
high priority on structure/logic rather than playfulness/expirimentation
|
|
Learned barriers
|
rigidity, functional fixedness, overreliance upon rules, etc.
|
|
Perceptual barriers
|
habits, routines, etc
|
|
What are Types of Thinking?
|
-Inductive thought
-Deductive thought -Logical thought -Illogical thought |
|
Inductive thought
|
Using specific facts/observations to form generalizations
(specific --> general) |
|
Deductive thought
|
Using general principles to make specific predictions
(general --> specific) |
|
Logical thought
|
Thought that involves the use of reasoning and/or formal rules
|
|
Illogical thought
|
Thought that is intuitive, haphazard or irrational
|
|
What 3 terms are included in Creative Thinking?
|
-Fluency
-Flexibility -Originality |
|
Fluency
|
The total number of ideas/solutions produced
|
|
Flexibility
|
The number of different types of solutions generated
|
|
Originality
|
The degree to which solutions are novel or unusual
|
|
Convergent thinking
|
Many thoughts or variations converging on a single answer; conventional thinking
|
|
Divergent thinking
|
Many possiblities developing from a single starting point; creative thinking
|
|
what are the Tests of Creativity?
|
-Unusual uses test
-Consequences test -Anagrams test |
|
Unusual uses test
|
Come up with as many uses for a particular object as possible
-e.g., tell me all the things you can do with a rubber band |
|
Consequences test
|
List all of the consequences that would result if a single change were made in the world
-e.g., what would happen if everyone could read everyone else's thoughts? |
|
Anagrams test
|
Create as many new words as possible from the letters of a particular words
-e.g., how many words can be created from CREATIVITY? |
|
Motivation
|
Internal processes that initiate, direct, sustain, and terminate behavior
|
|
How is motivation produced?
|
-Internal needs
-External incentives |
|
Internal needs
|
An internal lack of deficiency(e.g., hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc.)
|
|
External incentives
|
Desirable goals or outcomes (e.g., success, statues, approval, etc.)
|
|
Incentive value
|
The value or "pull" of a goal that goes above and beyond its ability to satisfy a need
|
|
Draw the Model of Motivation
|
NEED-->DRIVE-->RESPONSE-->GOAL-->(NEED RDUCTION)
-->back to need |
|
Need
|
An internal lack of deficiency that may energize behavior (e.g., lack of food)
|
|
Drive
|
The psychological expression of internal needs or valued goals (e.g., hunger)
|
|
Response
|
Any action or other identifiable behavior (e.g., obtaining food)
|
|
Goal
|
The target or objective of motivated behavior (e.g., nourishment, satiation)
|
|
What are the 3 types of Motives/Drives?
|
-Primary motives
-Stimulus motives -Secondary motives |
|
Primary motives
|
Innate motives that are based on biological needs that are necessary for survival
-e.g., hunger, thirst, pain avoidance, respiration, sleep, regulation of body temperature, etc. |
|
Stimulus motives
|
Innate needs for stimulation and information (not necessary for survival)
-e.g., curiosity, exploration, activity, etc. |
|
Secondary motives
|
Motives based on learned needs, drives, and goals
-e.g., achievement, approval, statues, affiliation, etc. |
|
Homeostasis (Primary Motive)
|
A steady state of bodily equilibrium
-e.g., blood pressure, body temperature, etc. |
|
Circadian rhythms (Primary Motive)
|
Cyclical patterns of biological activity that repeat themselves roughly every 24 hours
|
|
What is the Internal Influence on Hunger?
|
Hypothalamus
|
|
Hypothalamus
|
Small area at the base of the brain that regulates many motives, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
|
|
Lateral hypothalamus
|
Initiates eating
|
|
Ventromedial hypothalamus
|
Terminates eating
|
|
What are the External Influences on Hunger?
|
-Taste
-Emotional eating -Cultural factores -External eating cues |
|
External eating cues
|
External stimuli that encourage hunger or elicit eating, even when you are full
-e.g., the smell of your favorite food |
|
Taste
|
We are drawn to a variety of different foods
|
|
Emotional eating
|
Many people eat when they are anxious, sad, lonely, angry, or bored
|
|
Cultural factors
|
Certain foods are more appealing due to cultural factores, family traditions, etc.
|
|
Anorexia nervosa
|
An eating disorder that involves active self-starvation or a sustained loss of appetite
|
|
Bulimia nervosa
|
An eating disorder that involves excessive eating (binging) followed by self-induced vomiting (purging) or taking laxatives
|
|
What is true about eating disorders?
|
-These disorders are often associated w/ distortions in body image and need to be treated by a professional
-Both of these disorders can seriously damage health, and can even be life-threatening |
|
Extracellular thirst
|
Thirst produced when water is lost from the fluids surrounding the cells of your body
-May be caused by bleeding, vomiting, sweating, diarrhea, or alcohol consumption |
|
Intracellular thirst
|
Thirst caused by increased concentrations of salt, which draws water out of cells and causes them to shrink
-May be caused by eating foods high in sodium |
|
Pain avoidance
|
An episodic drive (one that occurs in distinct episodes) that is initiated when bodily damage has occurred or is imminent.
-In contrast, hunger, thirst, and sleep occur in fairly regular cycles each day. |
|
What does pain promt us to do?
|
Pain prompts us to avoid or eliminate sources of discomfort
-In contrast, most other drives cause us to actively seek something (food, drink, sleep, etc.). |
|
Sex drive
|
The strength of one's motivation to engage in sexual behavior
-Is not necessary for individual survival, but is essential for group survival -May be influenced by hormone fluctuations |
|
Estrogens
|
A family of female sex hormones
|
|
Stimulus motive (aka stimulus drive)
|
Innate need for information, exploration, and sensory input
-Helps us identify sources of food, shelter, danger, etc. |
|
Arousal
|
Activation of the body and nervous system
|
|
Arousal theory
|
Assumes that people try to maintain a constant, ideal level of arousal (activation)
-When arousal is too low, we feel bored, but when arousal is too high, we become anxious -Thus, we prefer to keep arousal at moderate levels -Ideal level or arousal depends on task complexity |
|
Yerkes-Dodson law
|
Simple tasks are performed best at higher levels of arousal, whereas complex tasks performed best at lower levels of arousal
-e.g., need to be pumped up for a marathon run (simple task) but need to be calmer to play a game of chess (complex task) |
|
Sensation seeking
|
The tendency to seek high levels of arousal (e.g., skydiving, bungee jumping, etc.)
|
|
Test anxiety
|
High levels of arousal and anxiety that seriously impair performance
|
|
Strategies for coping with test anxiety
|
-Preperation
-Relaxation -Rehearsal -Restructuring thoughts |
|
Social motives
|
Learned motives that are acquired as part of growing up in a particular culture
-e.g., success, achievement, approval, power, belonging, etc. |
|
Need for achievement (nAch)
|
The desire to excel or to meet some internalized standard of excellence
|
|
Need for power
|
The desire to have social impact or control over others
|
|
Maslow's Hierarchy of human needs
|
Maslow's ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency
-Needs that are more powerful influence your behavior to a greater degree |
|
Basic needs (Maslow)
|
First four needs of the hierarchy
-Physiological needs (food, shelter, etc.) -Safety and security -Love and belonging -Esteem and self-esteem |
|
Growth needs (Maslow)
|
Higher-level needs associated with self-actualization (achieving one's full potential)
|
|
Intrinsic motivation
|
Motivation that occurs in the absence of an obvious external reward
-e.g, genuine enjoyment of an activity, sense of satisfaction in the quality of one's work, etc. |
|
Extrinsic motivation
|
Motivation based on obvious external rewards or obligations
-e.g., course grades, pay, promotion opportunities, bonuses, rewards, approval, etc. |
|
Emotion
|
A state characterized by physiological arousal, changes in facial expression, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings
|
|
Adaptive behaviors
|
Behaviors that help us to survive and adjust to changing conditions
-e.g., fight or flight (attacking or fleeing), altruism (helping others), seeking safety/comfort, reproduction -Emotions also serve an adaptive purpose |
|
Physiological changes
|
Changes in heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary responses that accompany emotion
-Primarily caused by activity in the sympathetic nervous system and release of the hormone adrenaline by the adrenal glands |
|
Moods
|
Low-intensity emotional states that can last for hours or even days
-Moods are the mildest forms of emotion -Moods are closely tied to circadian rhythms |
|
Emotional expressions
|
Outward signs of what a person is feeling
-e.g., trembling hands, vocal changes, tense posture, contorted expressions |
|
Emotional feelings
|
A person's private, subjective experience of his/her emotions
|
|
Primary emotions
|
The eight most basic emotions (as identified by Robert Plutchik)
-Fear, suprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy, and trust (acceptance) -Each of these emotions can vary in intensity -The primary emotions can also be combined to create other emotions |
|
Wwhat are the eight most basic emotions?
|
-Fear
-Surprise -Sadness -Disgust -Anger -Anticipation -Joy -Trust (acceptance) |
|
Is it possible to experience positive and negative emotions at the same time?
|
Yes
-Positive emotions are primarily processed in the left hemisphere -Negative emotions are typically processed in the right hemisphere |
|
Autonomic nervous system
|
The neural system that connects the brain w/ internal organs and glands
-Controls automatic (involuntary) functions -e.g., heart rate, blood pressure -Is divided into two branches: Sympathetic division (activates the body) Parasympathetic division (quiets the body) |
|
Sympathetic nervous system
|
-Activates/arouses the body in emergency situations
-Prepares the brain/body for the fight or flight response -Activates necessary functions (e.g., heart rate) and deactivates nonessential activities (e.g., digestion) |
|
Parasympathetic nervous system
|
-Reverses emotional arousal and calms the body
-Keeps vital processes (e.g., breathing, heart rate, digestion) at normal levels -Is most active following an emotional event |
|
Polygraph (aka "lie detector")
|
A device that records heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and galvanic skin response (measured via perspiration)
|
|
What different types of questions does a polygraph test operator intermingle?
|
-Irrelevant questions (neutral; no anxiety intended)
-Control questions (produce anxiety in most people) -Relevant questions (should only produce anxiety if answered untruthfully, e.g., by guilty parties) |
|
In actualit, what does a polygraph machine measure?
|
emotional arousal, not truth vs. lying
|
|
Kinesics
|
The study of communication through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions
|
|
Relaxation/tension
(Common body language expression) |
-Body casually positioned and/or leaning back vs. more formally positioned and sitting up
|
|
liking/disliking
|
-Leaning toward a person or object vs. leaning away from a person or object
|
|
how many expressions can the face produce?
|
Up to 20,000 expressions, making it the most expressive part of the body
-Most of these are facial blends (mixes of two or more basic facial expressions) |
|
What are the 3 basic dimensions of facial expressions?
|
-Pleasantness-Unpleasantness
-Attention-Rejection -Activation |
|
Pleasantness-Unpleasantness
|
The degree of pleasure or displeasure a person is experiencing
|
|
Attention-Rejection
|
The degree of attention that is given to a person or object
|
|
Activation
|
The degree of arousal a person is experiencing
|
|
James-Lange theory
|
Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of arousal
-e.g., see bear, run and become aroused, feel fear |
|
Cannon-Bard theory
|
The thalamus causes bodily arousal and emotional feelings to occur simultaneously
-e.g., see bear, activate thalamus, bodily arousal/fear |
|
Schachter's cognitive theory
|
Emotions occur when a label is applied to general physical arousal
-e.g., see bear, become aroused, decide if bear is friendly or not, and then label emotion accordingly |
|
Attribution
|
The mental process of assigning causes to events
-In emotion, attribution is the process of explaining bodily arousal by attempting to identify its source |
|
Facial feedback hypothesis
|
Awareness of our facial expressions impacts our emotional experience
-e.g, sensation of frowning creates feelings of angst |
|
Emotional appraisal
|
Evaluating the personal meaning of a stimulus or situation
-e.g., interpreting an affront as stressful vs. comical |
|
Emotional intelligence
|
Emotional competence, including empathy, self-control, self-awareness, and other skills
-Involves accepting all feelings and managing them effectively -Emotional intelligence can be learned -Once learned, it can be used to enhance thinking and decision making |
|
Personality
|
A person's unique and relatively stable pattern of thinking, emotions, and behavior; consistency in who you are, who you have been, and who you will become
|
|
Character
|
Personal characteristics that have been judged or evaluated; a person's desirable or undesirable qualities
|
|
Temperament
|
The genetic (hereditary( aspects of personality
-e.g., sensitivity, activity levels, prevailing mood, irritability, and adaptability |
|
Personality trait
|
A stable, enduring quality that a person displays in most situations
-Traits are typically inferred from behavior -Traits may be used to predict future behavior |
|
Personality type
|
A style of personality that is defined by a group of related traits
|
|
Introversion vs. Extroversion
(Carl Jung) |
Introver: A shy, reserved person whose attention is focused inward
Extrover: A bold, outgoing person whose attention is directed outward |
|
Self-Concept
|
A person's perceptions, ideas, and feelings about his or her own personality traits
-These are created and continually influenced by life experiences |
|
Self-Esteem
|
One's personal self-regard or evaluation of oneself as worthwile
-High self-esteem: positive self-evaluation -Low self-esteem: negative self evaluation |
|
Trait theories
|
Focus on the traits (qualities) that make up personality and how they relate to behavior
|
|
Psychodynamic theories
|
Focus on the inner workings of personalityl, such as internal conflicts and struggles
|
|
Behavioristic and social learning theories
|
Emphasize the external environment and the influence of conditioning and learning
|
|
Humanistic theories
|
Emphasize personal growth and private, subjective experience
|
|
Common traits
|
Characteristics that are shared by most members of a particular culture
|
|
Individual traits
|
Characteristics that define a person's unique qualities
|
|
Cardinal trait
|
A trait that is so basic that all of a person's activites relate to it
-e.g., compassion for Mother Teresa |
|
Central traits
|
Core traits that provide the basic building blocks of personality
-e.g., sociable, honest, optimistic, intelligent |
|
Secondary traits
|
Traits that are relatively superficial
-e.g., food preferences, musical tastes, etc. |
|
Source traits
|
Basic, underlying traits or dimensions of personality
-Cattel identified 16 source traits using a subjective process -He created a personality test called thee 16PF that provides a snapshot of personality |
|
Surface traits
|
Visible, observable characteristics of personality
-Surface traits that are often reflections of source traits |
|
The "Big Five" Factors of Personality (Costa &McCrae, 1990)
BIG 5!!! |
Reduced Cattell's 16 personality factors to 5
-Extroversion -Agreeableness -Conscientiousness -Neuroticism -Openness |
|
Behavioral genetics
|
The study of inherited behavioral traits and tendencies
|
|
Trait-situation interactions
|
The influence that external settings or circumstances have on a person's expression of personality traits
|
|
What do psychodynamic theories do?
|
Psychodynamic theories investigate what drives, conflicts, and energies animate us.
|
|
Psychoanalytic theory (Freud)
|
Personality theory that emphasizes unconscious forces and conflicts
-As a doctor, Freud believed his patients' problems were more emotional than physical -Freud used hypnosis in an attempt to reveal people's unconscious thoughts and motives |
|
Freud viewed Personality as being directed by what three mental structures?
|
-Id
-Ego -Superego |
|
Id
|
The primitive, unconscious part of personality; it is irrational, self-serving, and impulsive
|
|
Ego
|
The executive part of personality that directs rational behavior
|
|
Superego
|
A judge or censor for thoughts and actions
|
|
More on the Id
|
-is composed of innate biological instincts and urges; is irrational, impulsive, self-serving, and unconscious
-Relies on the ego to carry out its wishes -Is driven by the pleasure principle (desire for instant gratification with no concern for future consequences) -The id expresses one's libido (The pleasure-driven force that engergizes the personality) -The libido flows from Eros (one's life instincts or urge to survive) to one's Thanatos (one's death instincts or destructive urges) |
|
More on the Ego
|
-Serves an executive function; directs the energies of the id
-Is the "visible" part of personality -Is the system of thinking, planning, problem solving and deciding -Is guided by the reality principle (delay action until it is practical and/or appropriate) |
|
More on the Superego
|
-Acts as a judge or censor for the thoughts and actions of the ego
The superego has two components: -Conscience: Reflects actions for which a person has been punished -Gulit results when its standards are not met -Ego ideal: Reflects all behavior one's parents approved or rewarded -Pride results when its standards are not met |
|
More on id, ego, superego
|
The ego is always caught in the middle between the id's desires for immediate gratification and the superego's desires for moral behavior
|
|
Neurotic anxiety
|
Caused by id impulses that the ego can barely control
|
|
Moral anxiety
|
Caused by threats of punishment from the superego
|
|
Freudian personality development
|
-Freud believed that the core of personality is formed by age 6
-He contended that personality develops through a series of four psychosexual stages -Everyone progresses through the same stages in the same order |
|
Fixation
|
Unresolved conflict or emotional hang-up caused by overindulgence or frustration
|
|
Oral Stage (Age 0-1)
|
-Infants are compelled to put things in their mouths
-Fixation during this stage produces an oral-dependent personality -Fixation early in the oral stage leads people to be gullible, passive, need lots of attention -Fixation late in the oral stage leads people to be aggressive, cynical, exploitative, argumentative |
|
Anal Stage (Ages 1-3)
|
-Child's attention shifts to process of elimination
-They dynamics of toilet training influence development -Children exercise control/comliance (or lack thereof) as a way of gaining approval or rebelling -Fixation leads to one of two types of personality: -Anal-retentive personality (obstinate, stubborn, stingy, orderly, or compulsively clean) -Anal-expulsive personality (disorderly, messy, destructive, or cruel) |
|
Phallic Stage (Ages 3-6)
8=====D |
Child becomes fascinated with the opposite-sex parent
-Bodys may develop an Oedipus conflict (rivalry with father for affection of mother; eventually identifies with father and seeks to emulate him) -Girls may develop an Electra conflict (compete with mother for affection of father; eventually identifies with mother) |
|
Latency (Age 6 - Puberty)
|
-Psychosexual development is dormant
-Children focus on same-sex friendships |
|
Gential Stage (from puperty on)
|
-Upswing of sexual energy activates all of the unresolved conflicts of earlier years
-Explains why adolescence is filled with emotion and turmoil -Is marked by a mature capacity for love and the realization of adult sexuality |
|
Behavioral personality theory
|
A model of personality that emphasize learning and observable behavior
-Personality is acquired via operant and classical conditioning, reinforcement, etc. |
|
Learning theorist
|
Believes that learning shapes our behavior and explains personality
|
|
Situaltional determinants
|
External conditions that influence our behaviors
|
|
Social learning theor (Rotter)
|
An explanation that combines learning principles, cognition, and the effects of social relationships
|
|
Psychological situation
|
The way in which a persona interprets or defines a given situation
|
|
Expectancy
|
Expectation about the effect a response (behavior) will have, particularly with regard to reinforcement
|
|
Reinforcement value
|
Subjective value attached to a particular activity or reinforcer
|
|
Self-efficacy
|
Belief in your own ability to produce a desired result
|
|
Self-reinforcement
|
Praising or rewarding oneself for having made a particular response (e.g., getting a good grade)
|
|
Social reinforcement
|
Praise, attention, and/or approval from others
|
|
Imitation
|
Desire to act like an admired person
|
|
Humanistic theory
|
Focuses on human experience, problems, potential, and ideals. The person you are is largely the product of all the choices you have made.
|
|
Self-Actualization (Maslow)
|
The process of fully developing one's personal potential
|
|
Human nature
|
The traits, qualities, potential, and behavior patterns that best characterize humans
|
|
Free choice
|
One's ability to choose that is not controlled by genetics, learning, or unconscious forces
|
|
Subjective experience
|
Private perceptions of reality
|
|
Humanism: what did Carl Rogers emphasize?
|
Carl Rogers enphasize the human capacity for inner peace and happiness
|
|
Fully-functioning person
|
One who lives in harmony with his/her deepes feelings and impulses
|
|
Self
|
A continuously evolving conception of one's personal identity
|
|
Self-image (aka self-concept)
|
One's subjective perception of one's body and personality
|
|
Ideal self
|
An idealized image of oneself; the person one wishes to be
|
|
True self
|
A realistic image of oneself; the person that one actually is
|
|
Incongruence
|
A condition of discrepancy between the three entities:
-Self-image -Ideal self -True self |
|
Congruence
|
A condition of harmony between these three entities:
-Self-image -Ideal self -True self |
|
Conditions of worht (Rogerian Concept)
|
Internal standards used to judge the value of one's thoughts, actions, feelings, or experiences
-Rogers attributed many adult problems to the use of these standards -He suggested that people replace conditions of worth with organismic valuing (a natural, undistored, full-body reaction to an experience) |
|
Positive self-regard
|
Thinking of oneself as a good, lovable, worthwhile person
|
|
Unconditional positive regard
|
Unshakable love and approval from others, given without qualification
|
|
Positive self-regard (Rogerian Concept)
|
Thinking of onself as a good, lovable, worthwhle person
|
|
Unconditional positive regard (Rogerian Concept)
|
Unshakable love and approval from others, given without qualification
|
|
Personality Assessment Techniques
|
-Interviews
-Direct observation -Personality questionnaires -Projective tests |
|
Interview
|
A face-to-face meeting designed to gain info about someone's personality, current psychological state, or personal history
|
|
Unstructered interview
|
The conversation is informal, and topics are discussed as they arise
|
|
Structured interview
|
The conversation follows a prearranged plan using a series of planned question
|
|
What are some limitations of interviews?
|
-interviewers' preconceptions or biases can color their perceptions of the interviewee
-The personality of the interviewer may influence the interviewee's responses and/or behavior -Interviewees are putting their best foot foward (not always representative of future behavior) -Halo effect |
|
Halo effect
|
Interviewer's tendency to generalize one favorable (or unfavorable) characteristic as representative of all aspects of the interviewee
|
|
Direct observation
|
People watching; observing behavior as it occurs
|
|
Behavioral assessment
|
Recording the frequency of specific behaviors
|
|
Personality questionnaires
|
Paper-and-pencil tests that reveal personality characteristics
|
|
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
|
-One of the most well-known and widely used objective personality questionnaires
-Is composed of 567 true/false items -Measures 10 aspects of personality |
|
Projective tests
|
Psychological tests that ask people to describe amiguous stimuli
|
|
Rorshach technique
|
A projective test comprised of 10 standardized inkblots
-People are asked to describe what they see in each inkblot |
|
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
|
A projective test featuring 20 sketches of life scenes and situations
-People are asked to make up stories about each sketch |
|
Health psychology
|
Uses behavioral principles to prevent illness and promote health
|
|
Behavioral medicine
|
Applies psychology to the management of medical problems
|
|
Lifestyle diseases
|
Diseases related to health-damaging personal habits
|
|
Behavioral risk factors
|
Behaviors that increase the chances of disease, injury, or premature death
|
|
Disease-prone personality
|
Personality type associated with poor health; person tends to be chronically depressed, anxious, and hostile
|
|
Refusal skills training
|
Stupid program that teaches young people how to resist pressure to smoke or use other drugs
|
|
Life skills training
|
Teahces stress reduction, self-protection, decision making, self-control, and social skills
|
|
Wellness
|
A positive state of good health and well-being; more than the absence of disease
|
|
Stress
|
Mental and physical condition that occurs when a person must adjust or adapt to the environment
-Is typically generated by unpleasant events |
|
Eustress
|
Positive stress
-Is typically generated by activities that are challenging, rewarding, and energizing |
|
Stress reaction
|
Physical response to stress that involves arousal of the autonomic nervous system
|
|
General adaption syndrome
|
A series of bodily reactions to prolonged stress
|
|
What are the three stages of General adaption syndrome?
|
1. Alarm reaction: Body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor
2. Stage of resistance: Bodily adjustments to stress stabilize, but at high physical cost 3. Stage of exhaustion: Body's resources are drained and serious health consequences occur |
|
Psychoneuroimmunology
|
Study of links among behavior, stress, disease, and the immune system
|
|
Immune system
|
Mobilizes bodily defenses like white blood cells against invading microbes and other disease agents
|
|
Stressor
|
An environmental condition or event that challenges or threatens a person
|
|
Pressure
|
A stressful condition that occurs when urgent external demands or expectations must be met
|
|
Stress (and potential physical damage) are magnified when emotional shocks are:
|
-intense or repeated
-unpredictable -uncontrollabe -linked to pressure |
|
Primary appraisal
|
Deciding whether a situation is relevant or irrelevant, positive or threatening
|
|
Secondary appraisal
|
Assessing one's resources and deciding how to cope with a threat or a challenge
|
|
what is just as threatening as actual lack of control?
|
Perceived lack of control
|
|
Emotion-focused coping
|
Managing or controlling one's emotional reactions to the stressful situation
|
|
Problem-focused coping
|
Managing or correctiong the distressing situation
|
|
Frustration
|
A negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from reaching desired goals
|
|
External frustration
|
Based on external conditions that impede progress toward a goal (e.g., delays, failure, rejection, loss, etc.)
|
|
Personal frustration
|
Caused by personal characteristics that impede progress toward a goal
|
|
Aggression
|
Any response made with the intention of doing harm
|
|
Displaced aggression
|
Redirecting aggression to a target other than the source of one's frustration
|
|
Scapegoating
|
Blaming a person or group for conditions they did not create
|
|
Escape
|
Leaving the source of frustration (e.g., dropping out of school) or withdrawing (e.g., apathy)
|
|
Conflict
|
Stress that occurs when a person must choose between incompatible or contradictory alternatives
|
|
Approach-approach conflict
|
Choosing between two positive, desirable alternatives
|
|
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
|
Choosing between two negative, undesirable alternatives
|
|
Approach-avoidance conflict
|
Being attracted to and repelled by the same goal or activity
-A central trait of this type of conflict is ambivalence (mixed positive and negative feelings) |
|
draw examples of each type of conflict
|
see drawing
|
|
Anxiety
|
Feelings of tension, uneasiness, apprehension, worry, and vulnerability (we are motivated to avoid this)
|
|
Defense mechanism
|
A habitual and often unconscious psychological process used to reduce anxiety
-Are used to avoid, deny, or distort sources of anxiety -Protect idealized self-image so we can live with ourselves -If used short term, can help us get through everyday situations -If used long term, we may end up not living in reality |
|
Denial
|
Primitive defense in which reality is rejected
|
|
Repression
|
When painful thoughts and memories are held out of our awareness
|
|
Reaction formation
|
Impulses are repressed and the opposite behavior is exaggerated
|
|
Regression
|
Returning to an earlier, less demanding situation or habit (may involve less mature behavior)
|
|
Rationalization
|
Justifying personal actions by providing "rational" but false reasons for them
|
|
Compensation
|
Efforts to counteract a weakness or sense of inferiority by excelling in other areas
|
|
Sublimation
|
Working off unmet desires or unacceptable impulses by channeling the energy into acceptable activities
|
|
Learned helplessness
|
Acquired (learned) inability to overcome obstacles and avoid aversive stimuli; learned passivity and inaction to aversive stimuli
-Occurs when events appear to be uncontrollabe -May feel helpless if failure is attributed to lasting, general factors |
|
Deperession
|
State of despondence characterized by feelings of powerlessness and hopelessness
-One of the most common mental problems -Symptoms: Loss of appetite or sex drive, decreased activity, sleeping too much |
|
Matery Training
|
A technique that reinforces responses that lead to mastery of a threat or control over one's environment
-Combats learned helplessness and depression by inspiring hope and persistence |
|
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
|
A scale that rates the impact of various life events on the likelihood of contracting illness
-Expresses the impact of live events in terms of life change units (LCUs) (numerical values assigned to each life event) -Provides a rough idea of stress (not foolproof) -Are positive life events (e.g., getting married, having a child) always stressful? -People differ greatly in their reactions to stress |
|
Psychosomatic disorders
|
Psychological factors contribute to actual bodily damage or to damaging changes in bodily functioning
-Respiratory and gstrointestinal complaints are most common |
|
Hypochondriac
|
A person who complains about illnesses that appear to be imaginary
-Distinctly different from psychosomatic disorders because no physical basis can be found |
|
Biofeedback
|
Provides a person with info about his or her ongoing bodily activites
-Aids voluntary regulation of bodily states such as blood pressure, heart rate, etc. -Helpful but not an instant cure -May help relieve certain types of headaches, chronic pain,k epileptic siezures, and insomnia |
|
Type A personality
|
Personality type characterized by time urgency and chronic anger or hostility
-Driven, ambitious, competitive, etc. -Associated with elevated risk of heart disease and increased risk of heart attack |
|
Type B personality
|
All personality types other than Type As
-Unlikely to have a heart attack |
|
Hardy personality
|
Personality type associated with superior stress resistance
-Harbor a sense of personal commitment to self, work, family, and other stabilizing values -Possess a sense of control over one's life and work -Tend to view life as a series of challenges rather than threats or problems |
|
Stress management
|
The use of behavioral strategies to reduce stress and improve coping skills
|
|
Progressive relaxtion
|
Produces deep relaxation throughout the body by tightening all muscles in an area and then relaxing them
|
|
Guided imagery
|
Deliberate visualization of images that are calming, relaxing, or beneficial
-Exerxise and meditation are also beneficial |