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81 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Principle of Variation
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All organisms of a particular species show variation in their traits (behavioral, morphological, and/or physiological traits)
This variability can be genotypic or phenotypic This genetic variability within a species is the result of one (or both) of two processes: The reshuffling of genes that occurs in sexual reproduction Genetic mutations that can occur in both sexual and asexual reproduction |
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Principle of Inheritance
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Part of the variation between individuals is “heritable” such that it will be passed from one generation to the next
In other words, offspring will tend to resemble related individuals more than they do unrelated individuals |
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Principle of Adaptation
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Describes the idea that some inherited phenotypic variations in individuals will cause improved or increased fitness by making individuals better suited to survive and reproduce in their environment.
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Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness
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The environment for which a particular evolved mechanism was adapted
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Genotype
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Set of genes that an individual inherits
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Phenotype
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Observable properties of the body and behavioral traits
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Polygenic Trait
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Characteristic that varies in a continuous way, generally affected by many genes
Example: Tryon's breeding of rats for maze ability |
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Single-Gene Traits
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A trait controlled by a single gene that has two alleles
Example: Fearfulness in dogs |
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Functionalism
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The attempt to explain a trait or behaviour in terms of what it accomplishes for the behaving individual (i.e. how it might be useful for survival and/or reproduction)
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Proximate Explanations
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What are the biological and environmental stimuli and mechanisms that bring on a behavior?
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Ultimate Explanations of Functionalism
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~How did this characteristic improve the survival and reproductive chances of our ancestors?
How did it help them get their genes into the next generation? |
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Harlow’s findings in his study with Monkeys
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Infant Monkeys spent more time clinging to the Cloth surrogate than the Wire surrogate, regardless of which one gave milk
Infant Monkeys were more likely to run to the Cloth surrogate when frightened, regardless of which gave milk |
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Attachment Theory
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studies the long-lasting emotional bonds that infants develop (or fail to develop) toward their primary caregivers
It also studies how early attachment bonds affect people’s “working models” of future relationships Rooted in evolutionary theory |
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Strange Situation Test
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Infant and care-giver are brought into an unfamiliar room with toys. The infant remains while the care-giver is exchanged for an unknown person. The care-giver is then reintroduced to the environment
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Strange Situation Test Results - Securely Attached Children
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In the Strange Situation Test, securely attached infants will:
Explore when their mother is present Show signs of distress and explore less when their mother is absent Be unsuccessfully comforted by a stranger Show pleasure when the mother returns |
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Secure Attachment Infants become securely attached to a mother who:
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Provides regular contact comfort
Responds promptly and sensitively to distress signals Provides Interactional Synchrony |
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Strange Situation Test Results - Avoidant Attached Children
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Show little or no pleasure when the mother returns
Show little or no distress upon the mother’s departure Show little or no differentiated behavior toward the mother or the other adult |
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Strange Situation Test Results - Anxious/Ambivalent Attached Children
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Likely to be highly avoidant of separation
Very wary of the stranger and are highly distressed when the mother leaves Are less likely to be consoled and calmed by a mothers returning, and may even “punish” the mother for leaving by crying or acting aggressively |
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Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Infants become Anxious/Ambivalent attached to a mother who
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Inconsistently provides comfort and contact
Inconsistently expresses approval or disapproval Acts overprotective in most situations, reducing exploration |
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Avoidant Attachment Infants become Avoidant attached to a mother who
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Shows little or no response to a distressed child
Discourages crying in an angry or annoyed manner |
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Secure Attachment consequences
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Greater willingness to explore novel objects/environments from a secure base
Increased sociability, empathy, self-esteem and self-confidence in later childhood and adulthood Greater likelihood of believing in enduring romantic love Greater belief that one’s romantic partner is emotionally available and worthy of love, and that the self is available and worthy of love Roughly 60-70% of children and adults develop a secure attachment style |
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Avoidant Attachment consequences
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A strong sense of self-reliance and a denial of any need or desire to form close relationships
Avoidance of intimacy and sharing Improved ability to control emotions and move on after a break-up Greater likelihood of believing that romantic love is fleeting or fake Greater belief that one’s romantic partner is not available, and while the self is worthy of their love, it doesn’t need it. Roughly 20% of children & adults develop avoidant styles |
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Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment consequences
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High need of intimacy, approval, and responsiveness in adult romantic relationships (often falling in and out of love quickly)
Less trust of romantic partners, despite high levels of commitment Highly defensive responses to perceived threats to the relationship Greater feelings that while one’s partner is worthy of love, they may be unavailable, or they may not find the self worthy of love Roughly 10 – 20% of adults and children develop an anxious / ambivalent attachment style |
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Functions of Play
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Play is a vehicle for Learning about Rules, Turn-Taking and Self-Control
Children show greater advances in moral reasoning when they discuss social dilemmas with peers rather than with parents Play is always governed by rules that define the range of what’s permissible “In Vygotsky’s view, play in humans evolved at least partly as a means of practicing self-discipline of the sort that is needed to follow social conventions and rules” |
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Hoffman’s Parenting Styles
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Induction
Power Assertion Love Withdrawal |
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Hoffman’s Parenting Styles: Induction
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- Inducing the child to think about the harmful consequences of their actions, from the point of view of the person they hurt
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Hoffman’s Parenting Styles: Power Assertion
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Use of physical force, punishment, or rewards (bribes) to control behavior
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Hoffman’s Parenting Styles: Love Withdrawal
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Expressing strong disapproval at the child, not just the specific action
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Baumrind’s Parenting Styles: Authoritative
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Enforcing rules for children, but giving principled reasons for those rules
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Baumrind’s Parenting Styles: Authoritarian
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Valuing obedience and using forceful discipline to obtain it
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Baumrind’s Parenting Styles: Permissive
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Little discipline or recognition of disruption
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Baumrind's Parenting Styles
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Authoritative
Authoritarian Permissive |
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Risk Taking: Moffit's Hypothesis
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Disconnect ebetween early onset of puberty and delayed acceptance into adulthood
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Risk Taking: Harris's Hypothesis
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Teen boys are trying to set themselves apart from adult world
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Young Male Syndrone
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Teens who take risks are evolutionarily favored
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Identity Formation: Identity Crisis
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During adolescence, finding new adult identity
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Identity Formation: Moratorium
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A state of identity formation in which adolescents are currently in a state of crisis and who are actively exploring and experimenting with alternatives
Individuals in “moratorium” are confused about their identity, but they are working to figure it out |
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Identity Formation: Identity Achievement
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Characterizes individuals who have undergone a period of questioning, who have critically examined parental and cultural beliefs and values, and who have committed to their own set of goals, values, and beliefs.
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Identity Formation: Identity Foreclosure
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state of Identity Formation in which commitments are expressed and adhered to without experiencing any crisis or “moratorium” stage
Adolescents with foreclosed identities internalize the beliefs, values, and norms of their parents or dominant social group with minimal alteration, questioning, or self-choice These adolescents have relatively high commitment and high self-esteem, and there is usually minimal discrepancy between self-presentation and inner feelings |
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Love Systems: Lust
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Survey who’s out there
Short-term detail-focused thinking |
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Love Systems: Romantic Love
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Focus strongly on partner
Long-term “Globalized” thinking |
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Love Systems: Attachment
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Bond to partner over time
Positive Illusions |
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Secure attachment styles: Relationships
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Facilitated by: High trust, high responsiveness to needs and requests, regular contact comfort & interactional synchrony
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Do Opposites Attract?
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Couples with the highest levels of relationship quality were those who were:
More similar to each other on “warmth” More dissimilar to each other on “dominance” |
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Positive Illusions
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Focus attention on one partner
Commitment-Insurance: Positive Illusions increase after thinking about incurred independence costs “Autonomy costs automatically activate the propensity to attach greater value to the partner” |
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Personality
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This predisposition to respond to the features, people, and changes in one’s environment in relatively similar ways across situations
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Traits
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The specific behavioral and psychological tendencies that people bring into situations
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Five Factor Model of Personality
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Openness to Experience
Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism |
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Five Factor Model: Openness
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Openness refers to how willing people are to:
make adjustments in their opinions and activities in accordance with new ideas or situations seek novelty in their environment and experiences curiously explore new things stray from tradition |
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Five Factor Model: Conscientiousness
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Control or Self-Constraint factor
Refers to the extent to which individuals seek to: control, order, and organize their environment exercise their will, self-discipline, & impulse control follow through with tasks and responsibilities |
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Five Factor Model: Extraversion
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the extent to which individuals:
Show keen interest in other people Prefer to be outward-focused rather than inward Act assertively in social endeavors Exhibit high levels of energy in activities |
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Five Factor Model: Agreeableness
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Extent to which individuals:
Get along with others, Exhibit concern and compassion for others, Foster cooperativeness vs. competitiveness Compromise to avoid conflict and enhance cohesion |
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Five Factor Model: Neuroticism
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Tendency to:
Experience negative emotions at relatively high intensities and frequencies. Be emotionally volatile and moody vs. stable Experience frequent anxiety vs. calm |
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Traits of Five Factor Model that DECREASE
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Openness
Neuroticism |
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Traits of Five Factor Model that INCREASE
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Agreeablenes
Conscientiousness |
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Parental Differentiation
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Parents tend to focus on differences vs. similarities between kids
Siblings tend to more strongly identify with different parents |
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Biases
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Attractiveness Bias
Baby-Face Bias Primacy effect Halo Effect False-Consensus Effect Person Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error) Actor-Observer Discrepancy Self-Serving Bias |
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Primacy effect
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Information learned first is more influential
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Attractiveness Bias
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People confer many positive qualities on those who are attractive
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Baby-Face Bias
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Judged as more naïve, honest, helpless & are less likely to be convicted of intentional crimes
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Halo Effect
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Perceiving 1 or 2 positive traits then assuming they have ALL positive traits
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False-Consensus Bias
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Believing the majority of others think and feel as we do
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Person Bias/Fundamental attribution error
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People are likely to give to much weight to personality when explaining the causes of others’ behavior and too little weight to the situation
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Actor-observer discrepancies
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The tendency to explain the cause of others’ behavior in terms of their personality, but one's own behavior in terms of their own situations and circumstances
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Self-Serving Bias
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One's own good outcomes are caused by their own good traits, and bad outcomes as being caused by the situation
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schema
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the web of knowledge we have pertaining to a person or thing
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Attributions
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Beliefs or claims about the cause of a behavior
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Social Facilitation occurs when:
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The skill/task is dominant, well learned, or automatic
increased arousal improves effort and attention which improves performance |
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Social Interference occurs when:
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The skill/task is non-dominant, novel, or requires significant conscious control
- Increased arousal and concern with being evaluated consumes cognitive resources needed to perform the non-dominant skill/task |
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The Stereotype Threat Effect:
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1. Activating a negative stereotype about one’s social group causes increased anxiety about confirming the negative stereotype
2. This anxiety in turn “consumes” some of the cognitive resources necessary for performing the task 3. Thus, performance suffers |
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Informational influence
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Social influence that works by providing clues about the objective nature of an event or situation
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Normative influence
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Social influence that works through the person's desire to be part of a group or to be approved of by others
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Broken windows theory of crime
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Cues suggesting that disrespect for law and order are normal can lead to an escalation in crime
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Implicit Norms in Public Service Messages
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Messages can be made more effective if they portray the undesirable behavior as abnormal and desirable behavior as normal.
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Diffusion of Responsibility / Bystander Effect
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The more bystanders present at an emergency, the less likely any of them are to help
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Low-Ball Technique
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Once individuals verbally agree to buy something for a certain cost,
they are still likely to buy the same thing even if “circumstances” cause the cost to increase |
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Foot-in-the-Door Technique
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People are more likely to agree to a large request if they’ve already agreed to a small one
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Door-in-the-face Technique
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Leading with a very large request (in which the expected answer is “no”)
Then following up with a relatively smaller request. |
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Reciprocity Norms
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People feel obliged to return favors, even favors they didn’t request in the first place
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Three Principles of Darwinian Evolution
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Adaptation
Inheritance Variability |
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Factors that explain variability in personality
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Birth order, parental differentiation effects, beliefs about the self, personal myths or self-concepts
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