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211 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is gender?
*The state of being male of female;
What is sexual behavior?
*Behavior that produces arousal and increases the chance of orgasm
What are the three types of influence that communication theorists believe that media can have?
-cultivation
-agenda setting
-social learning
What is cultivation?
-in communications theory; the view that exposures to the mass media makes peoples think that what they see there represents the mainstream of what really occurs
What is agenda setting?
-in communications theory; the idea that the media define what is important and what is not by which stories they cover
What is social learning?
-in communications theory; the idea that the media provide role models whom we imitate
What is ethnocentrism?
-the tendency to regard one's own ethnic group and culture as superior to others and to believe that its customs and way of life are the standards by which other cultures should be judged
What is incest taboo?
-a regulation prohibiting sexual interaction between blood relatives, such as brother and sister or father and daughter
What is culture?
-traditional ideas and values passed down from generation to generation within a group and transmitted to members of the group by symbols (such as language)
What is masturbation?
-self-stimulation of the genitals to produce sexual arousal
What is cunnilingus?
-Mouth stimulation of the female genitals
What is familismo?
-Among Latinos, a strong cultural valuing of one's nuclear and extended family
What are several of the core Asian values?
1. Collectivism;
2. Conformity to Norms;
3. Emotional Control
What is sexual health?
-a state of physical, emotional, mental, and social well-being in relation to sexuality
What are sexual rights?
-basic, inalienable rights regarding sexuality, both positive and negative, such as rights to reproductive self-determination and sexual self-expression and freedom from sexual abuse and violence
What is the libido?
-The biological sex drive
(in psychoanalytic theory, the term for sexual energy or sex drive)
`What is sociobiology?
-The application of evolutionary biology to understanding the social behavior of animals, including humans
What is evolution?
-A theory that all living things have acquired their present forms through gradual changes in their genetic endowment over successive generations
What is natural selection?
-A process in nature resulting in greater rates of survival of those plants and animals that are adapted to their environment
What is sexual selection?
-A specific type of selection that creates differences between males and females
What is parental investment?
-The behavior and resources invested in offspring to ensure survival and reproductive success of their genetic offspring
What is evolutionary psychology?
-The study of psychological mechanisms that have been shaped by natural selection
What is psychoanalytic theory?
-A psychological theory originated by Sigmund Freud; it contains a basic assumption that part of human personality is unconscious
What is the id?
-According to Freud; the part of the personality containing the libido
(operates on the pleasure principle)
What is the ego?
-According to Freud; the part of the personality that helps the person have realistic, rational interactions
(operates on the reality principle)
What is the superego?
-According to Freud; the part of the personality containing the conscience
(operates on idealism)
What are erogenous zones?
-Areas of the body that are particularly sensitive to sexual stimulation
What is the Oedipus complex?
-According to Freud; the sexual attraction of a little boy to his mother
What is the Electra complex?
-According to Freud; the sexual attraction of a little girl to her father
What is classical conditioning?
*Pavlov; The learning process in which a previously learned stimulus (conditioned stimulus) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus that reflexively elicits an unconditioned response. Eventually the conditioned stimulus itself will evoke the response.
What is operant conditioning?
*Skinner; The process of changing the frequency of a behavior (the operant) by following it with positive reinforcement (which will make the behavior more frequent in the future) or punishment (which should make the behavior less frequent in the future)
What is behavior modification?
-A set of operant conditioning techniques used to modify human behavior
What is extinction?
-The process of repeatedly pairing a behavior with an aversive stimulus, leading to a decline in the frequency of the behavior
What is self-efficacy?
-A sense of competence at performing an activity.
What is social exchange theory?
-A theory, based on the principle of reinforcement, that assumes that people will choose actions that maximize rewards and minimize costs.
What is schema?
-A general knowledge framework that a person has about a particular topic
What is gender schema?
*A cognitive structure comprising the set of attributes (behaviors, personality, appearance) that was associate with males and females;
-predisposes us to process information on the basis of gender
What is the medicalization of sexuality?
-The process by which certain sexual behaviors or conditions are defined in terms of health and illness, and problematic experiences or practices are given medical treatment.
What is symbolic interaction theory?
-A theory based on the premise that human nature and social order are products of communication among people.
What does it mean that humans are portrayed as "other-directed" individuals?
-That humans are concerned primarily with meeting others' standards
What are sexual scripts?
-The idea that sexual behavior (and virtually all human behavior)is scripted as much as a play in a theater is.
What are scripts?
-Plans that people carry around in their heads for what they are doing and what they are going to do; they are also devices for helping people remember what they have done in the past.
According the Reiss, what three areas of social structure is sexuality linked to?
-kinship
-power structure
-ideologies
What are ovaries?
-come in pairs; female "gonads" (sex glands)
-they release eggs; make and release sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
What is the fourchette?
-the back of the vagina
What is the bartholin gland?
-pair of glands at the vaginal opening
What is the clitoris?
-very sexually sensitive
-shares corpus cavernosus w/ penis (these cause erections)
*Crus; "arms", somewhat erectile and sexually sensitive
What is the hymen?
-membrane covering the entrance to the vagina ; they come in different shapes and sizes
-not everyone is born with one
What is a clitorodectomy?
*Type 1; FGC
-involves removal of the clitoral hood and (maybe) clitoral glans
What is the introutus?
-The vaginal entrance
What is the perineum?
-The skin between the vaginal entrance and the anus
What is the urethra?
-The tube through which urine passes from the bladder out of the body
What is the vagina?
*The tube-shaped organ in which the penis is inserted during coitus and through which a baby passes during birth;
-is a very flexible organ
-resting state is about 8-10 inches long
*inner layer; vaginal mucosa
-middle layer; muscular
-outer layer; forms a covering
What is the pubococcygeus muscle?
-a muscle around the vaginal entrance (part of the pelvic floor muscles)
-can be stretched through childbirth but can also be strengthened during various exercises
What are the vestibular bulbs?
*Erectile tissue running under the inner lips (aka; the bulbs of the clitoris)
-about the size and shape of a pea pod
What is the Skene's gland?
*"Female Prostate" or "Paraurethral Gland"
-lie between wall of urethra and wall of vagina
-secretes fluid that is biologically similar to male prostate fluid
What is the uterus?
-The organ in the female in which the fetus develops
-about the size and shape of an upside-down pear
What are the different parts and layers of the uterus?
*Cervix; narrow lower third that opens into the vagina
-Fundus; the top part
-Body; the main part
*Endometrium; inner layer, full of blood vessels and glands (sloughed off during menstruation to create menstrual discharge)
-Myometrium; middle layer, powerful muscles that are responsible for labor contractions and orgasm, elastic enough to accommodate holding an infant
-Perimetrium; external cover of uterus
What are the Fallopian tubes?
*The tubes extending from the uterus to the ovary (also called the oviducts)
-
What are cilia?
-hairlike projections that line the Fallopian tubes
What are fimbriae?
-fingerlike projections that extend from the Fallopian tubes toward the ovary
What are the ovaries?
-two organs in the female that produce eggs and sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
-each ovary contains numerous follicles (a capsule that surrounds an egg)
What is the areola?
-The darker area on the breast surrounding the nipple
What is the penis?
-The male external sexual organ, which functions both in sexual activity and in urination
What are the different parts to the penis?
-meatus/urethral opening; opening at the end of the glans through which semen and urine pass
-shaft; main part of the penis
-corona; raised ridge at the edge of the glans
What part of the penis is most sexually sensitive and excitable?
-corona and rest of the glans
What is the corpora cavernosa?
-Spongy bodies running the length of the top of the penis
What is the corpus spongiosum?
-a spongy body running the length of the underside of the penis
-during erection, it can be seen as a raised column on the lower side of the penis
What is foreskin?
-a layer of skin covering the glans or tip of the penis in an uncircumcised male
(also called the prepuce)
What is circumcision?
-surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis
What are some of the potential benefits of circumcision of the penis?
-eleven times less likely to get a UTI
-much smaller risk for HIV than uncircumcised men
What is a superincision?
-a form of male genital cutting in which a slit is made the length of the foreskin on top, with the foreskin otherwise remaining intact
What is a subincision?
-a form of male genital cutting in which a slit is made on the lower side of the penis along its entire length;
(urine is then excreted at the base, rather than the tip, of the penis)
What is the scrotum?
-one of the major external genital structures in males
-a loose pouch of skin, lightly covered with hair, that contains the testes
What are the testes?
-the pair of glands in the scrotum that manufacture sperm and sex hormones (analogous to ovaries)
-major functions include manufacture germ (sperm) cells and sex hormones (testosterone)
What are the two major functions of the testes?
-manufacturing germ (sperm) cells
-manufacturing sex hormones (testosterone)
What are the seminiferous tubules?
-tubes in the testes that carry out the function of manufacturing and storing sperm (spermatogenesis)
What are the interstitial tubes?
-cells in the testes that manufacture testosterone
What is sperm?
-the mature male reproductive cell, capable of fertilizing an egg
What is the epididymis?
-highly coiled tube located on the edge of the testis
-where sperm mature
What are the vas deferens?
-the tube through which sperm pass on their way from the testes and epididymis, out of the scrotum, and to the urethra
What are the seminal vesicles?
-two saclike structures that lie above the prostate and produce about 60% of the seminal fluid (remaining 40% is produced by the prostate)
What is the prostate?
-the gland in the male, located below the bladder, that secretes some (40%) of the fluid in semen
What is the Cowper's glands?
-(during sexual arousal) glands that secrete a clear alkaline fluid into the male's urethra
What is the prevalence of breast cancer for women in the US?
-1/9
What percent of breast cancer cases can be attributed to genetic factors?
-about 5-10%
What is a lumpectomy?
-a surgical treatment for breast cancer in which only the lump and a small bit of surrounding tissue are removed
What is a radical mastectomy?
-a surgical treatment for breast cancer in which the entire breast, as well as underlying muscles and lymph nodes, is removed
What is a hysterectomy?
-surgical removal of the uterus
What are hormones?
-Chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands into the bloodstream
What is the prenatal period?
-the time from conception to birth
What is testosterone?
-A hormone secreted by the testes in males (and also present at lower levels in females)
What are androgens?
-the group of male sex hormones, one of which is testosterone
What are estrogens?
-The group of female sex hormones
What is progesterone?
-A sex hormone secreted by the uterus
What is the pituitary gland?
*A small endocrine gland located on he lower side of the brain below the hypothalamus; important in regulating sex hormones
-made up of 2 lobes; anterior (interacts w/ the gonads)
What is the hypothalamus?
-a small region of the brain that is important in regulating many body functions, including the functioning of the sex hormones
What is the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)?
*A hormone secreted by the pituitary; it stimulates follicle development in females and sperm production in males
What is the luteinizing hormone (LH)?
*A hormone secreted by the pituitary; it regulates estrogen secretion and ovum development in females and testosterone production in males
What is gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)?
*A hormone secreted by the hypothalamus that regulates the pituitary's secretion of gonad-stimulating hormones
What is the Hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad (HPG) axis?
*The negative feedback loop the regulates sex-hormone production
("thermostat-type mechanism"; increases in temperature turn off the furnace, decreases in temperature turn on the furnace)
What is inhibin?
*A hormone secreted by the testes and ovaries that regulates FSH levels
What hormone regulates FSH levels?
-inhibin
What hormone controls LH levels?
-testosterone
What bodily changes is estrogen responsible for?
-Puberty; stimulating the growth of the uterus and vagina, enlarging the pelvis, and stimulating breast growth
-maintaining mucous membrane of the vagina
-stopping the growth of bone and muscle (accounts for female generally being smaller than males)
What hormones control the levels of estrogen and progesterone in females?
-FSH and LH
How do FSH and LH control the levels of estrogen and progesterone in females?
-Increases in level of GnRH lead to increased levels of LH. increases in LH eventually produce increases in the output of estrogen, increases in estrogen decrease the production of GnRH and LH
What is prolactin?
-A pituitary hormone that stimulates milk production by the mammary glands
What is oxytocin?
-A pituitary hormone that stimulates milk ejection from the nipples and contractions of the uterus during childbirth
(the "snuggle chemical")
What is SRY?
*Stands for "sex-determining regions"; Y chromosome; (if SRY is present causes testis-determining factor (TDF), and the gonads differentiate into testes
What are the Mullerian Ducts?
*Ducts found in both male and female fetuses; in males they degenerate, and in females they develop into Fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the upper part of the vagina
What are the Wolffian Ducts?
*Ducts found in both male and female fetuses; in females they degenerate, and in males they develop into the epididymis, the vas deferens, and the ejaculatory duct
What chromosomes do typically developing females have?
-XX
What chromosomes do typically developing males have?
-XY
What is Klinefelter's Syndrome?
-A syndrome where a genetic male is born with an extra "X" chromosome; resulting in abnormal testes and no sperm is produced and testosterone levels are low
About how long after conception is the embryo 1 CM long?
-about 28 days post-conception
About how long after conception do embryos stop being undifferentiated and develop basic structures that will eventually turn into reproductive systems?
-about 7 weeks
About how long does it take for ovaries to start developing in an embryo?
-about 14 weeks
What are endocrine disrupters?
-chemicals in the environment that affect the endocrine system and the biological functioning and behavior of animals, including humans.
What is cryptorchidism?
*Undescended testes; the condition in which the testes do not descent to the scrotum as they should during prenatal development.
-occurs in about 3% of all males
(if the testes don't descent spontaneously then they are usually corrected by surgery)
What is an inguinal hernia?
-A problem that occurs when the inguinal canal does not close off completely, it may then reopen later in life, creating a passageway through which loops of the intestine can enter the scrotum
What are homologous organs?
-organs in the male and female that develop from the same embryonic tissue
What are analogous organs?
-organs in the male and female that have similar functions
What female organs are the testes analogous to?
-ovaries
What male organ is the clitoris analogous to?
-the glans penis
What 8 different ways can be used to distinguish gender?
1. chromosomal gender
2. gonadal gender
3a. prenatal hormonal gender
3b. Prenatal and neonatal brain differentiation
4. internal organs
5. external genital appearance
6. pubertal hormonal gender
7. assigned gender (announcement at birth)
8. gender identity
What does it mean to be intersex?
-a condition in which the individual has a mixture of male and female reproductive structures, so that it is not clear at birth whether the individual is a male or a female. (Formerly called pseudohermaphodite)
What are Disorders of Sex Development (DSDs)?
-A newer term for intersex conditions
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)?
-A condition in which a genetic female produces excess levels of androgens prenatally and therefore has male-appearing genitals at birth
What is androgen-insensitivity syndrome (AIS)?
-A genetic condition on which the body is unresponsive to androgens so that a genetic male may be born with a female-appearing body
What are Guevodoces?
-("penis at 12")
-a phenomena where at one time in the Dominican Republic a large number genetic males experienced a genetic-endocrine problem and at a young age were treated as genetic females but at puberty began to identify as males
What is puberty?
-The time in which there is sudden enlargement and maturation of the gonads, other genitalia, and secondary sex characteristics, so that the individual becomes capable of reproduction.
What is menarche?
-first menstruation
What is adolescence?
-a socially defined period of development that bears some relationship to puberty; represents a psychological transition from the behavior and attitudes of a child to the behavior, attitudes, and responsibilities of being an adult
Around what age does puberty onset in girls and boys?
-Girls; 8-12
-Boys; around 10+
What is the first sign of puberty in girls?
-breast development (9-10 years old)
What is the first sign of puberty in boys?
-growth of testes and scrotal sac (10-11 years old)
What is leptin?
-a hormone related to the onset of puberty
What are adrenal glands?
-endocrine glands located just the kidneys; in females they are major producers of androgens
What is andrenarche?
-in childhood, the maturation of the adrenal glands, resulting in increased secretion of androgens
The increased levels of which hormones lead to the onset of puberty in boys?
-FSH
-LH
What is gynecomastia?
-breast (temporary) enlargement in boys that can occur during puberty
What is involved in the follicular phase?
*first phase of the menstrual cycle;
-begins just after menstruation, during which an egg matures in preparation for ovulation
-high levels of FSH
-function is to stimulate follicles in the ovaries
What is ovulation?
*Second phase of the menstrual cycle; caused by surge of LH
-Release of an egg from the ovaries;
-FSH decreases, Estrogen increases
What is involved in the luteal phase?
-*3rd phase of menstruation;
-following ovulation
-stimulation of LH turns glandular mass of cells into the corpus luteum
What is the corpus luteum?
-The mass of cells of the follicle remaining after ovulation; it secretes progesterone
What is menstruation?
*4th phase of the menstrual cycle;
-endometrium of the uterus is sloughed off in the menstrual discharge
-estrogen and progesterone levels are low and FSH levels are rising
What is an anovulatory cycle?
-when a woman has a menstrual cycle but ovulation doesn't occur
What is mittelschmerz?
*"Middle Pain";
-a phenomenon where women report that they can actually feel themselves ovulate;
-feels like a cramping on one or both sides of the lower abdomen, lasting for about a day (sometimes is confused with appendicitis)
What is the purpose of the cervical mucus cycle?
-mucus protects the entrance to the cervix by helping to keep bacteria out
How does a woman's basal body temperature fluctuate during her cycle?
-BBT is low during the follicular phase and takes a dip the day of ovulation
-day after ovulation BBT raises noticably
-increased temperature during the luteal phase is due to increased production of progesterone
What is dysmenorrhea?
-Painful menstruation
What are prostaglandins?
-Chemicals secreted by the uterus that cause the uterine muscles to contact, they are a likely cause of painful menstruation
What type of drugs is the best treatment for menstrual cramps?
-Anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
What is endometriosis?
-A condition in which the endometrium grows abnormally outside the uterus; the symptom is unusually painful periods with excessive bleeding
What is amenorrhea?
-The absence of menstruation
(either Primary or Secondary)
What is primary amenorrhea?
-girls who haven't menstruated by age 18
What is secondary amenorrhea?
-girls who have had at least one period but then acquire an absence of menstruation
What are some of the causes of amenorrhea?
-pregnancy
-congenital defects of the reproductive system
-hormonal imbalance
-cysts or tumors
-stress
-emotional factors related to puberty
-strenuous exercise
-anorexia
What is Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)?
-A combination of severe physical and psychological symptoms, such as depression and irritability, occurring just before menstruation
What is premenstural dysphoric disorder (PMDD)?
-A tentative diagnostic category in the DSM, characterized by symptoms such as sadness, anxiety, and irritability in the week before menstruation
What is Inis Beag?
*VERY sexually repressive island off the coast of Ireland
-there is no sex education
-sex is more of a "get the job done"
What is Mangaia?
-A place in the South Pacific
-very sexually open
-girls and boys learn about sex in the early years
-adolescents are expected to have many relationships
What is the sexual culture like in China?
-Historically; China was a sex-positive culture
-around 1950; it turned into a sex-negative culture
-lately; due to technology, things have started turning more liberal
What are some trends that studies have discovered about masturbation?
-More education=more masturbation (for both men and women)
-whites, latinos, and asians all have about the same rates of masturbation
How do rates of abortion compare across different ethnic groups?
-Asian americans are 2x as like as whites to get an abortion
What are some cross-cultural universals regarding sex?
-incest taboo
-all societies regulate sex somehow
What is cultivation theory about?
-it says that exposure to media makes people think that what they see there represents the mainstream of what people actually do
What is agenda setting theory about?
-it says that the media defines what's important and what isn't by what they cover
What is social learning theory about?
-it says that media provides role models whom we copy
How does sociobiology apply within the context of evolutionary theories?
-it is the application of evolutionary biology to understanding the sociological behavior of animals
What is evolutionary thoery?
*Darwin
-it says that changes occur through generations
What is natural selection?
-a process in nature where the best-adapted plants and animals survive
What is sexual selection?
-a specific type of selection that creates male-female characteristics
(i.e. males compete with each other and females choose who they want)
What is evolutionary psychology?
-A theory that psychological mechanisms have been shaped by evolution
What is the sexual strategy theory?
-Buss; says that long-term mating strategies are used for getting married and that short-term mating strategies are used for hooking up
(different strategies and used for short-term and long-term)
According to psychoanalytic theory, what are the 3 parts of the personality?
*Id=pleasure principle (early years)
*Ego=reality principle (preschool years)
*Superego=idealism, conscience (around age 5-6)
What is the libido?
*Freud; the "sex enegry" or "drive"
What is the "unconscious"?
*Freud; the sexual thoughts that are revealed in things like dreams and slips of the tongue
What are erogenous zones?
*Freud; zones of the body that are sexually sensitive
What are the stages of psychosexual development?
*Freud;
1. Oral; (0-1 years)
-child gets a lot of pleasure from suckign
2. Anal; (1-2 years)
3. Phallic; (3-6 years)
-Oedipal Complex
-Electra Complex
4. Latency; (7-12), sex if of less important
5. Genital; (13+), libido focuses on genitals
What is the Oedipal Complex?
*Part of Freud's Phallic stage of Psychosexual Development;
-boy is fascinated with his penis, fears "castration anxiety" (which leads to gender-role ID)
What is the Electra Complex?
*Part of Freud's Phallic stage of Psychosexual Development;
-girls realize they don't have a penis, this leads to them feeling "incredibly inferior", "girls lust after daddy"
-phase doesn't resolve as fully as Oedipal Complex; leads to women developing less of a superego
What does classical conditioning involve?
*Pavlov; take on unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response, add conditioned response, then conditioned stimulus turns to conditioned response
-i.e. fetishes
What is operant conditioning?
*Skinner;
-positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment
Who contributed to social learning theory?
-Bandura
(it involved operant and imitation; gender-based stereotypes)
What is excision?
-complete removal of clitoral glands and lips
-WHO; Type 2 of FGC
What is infibulation?
-removal of clitoral glands and inner lips, stitch together raw edges of outer lips
-WHO; Type 3 of FGC
What is a labiaplasty?
-Genital plastic surgery that involves trimming the inner lips
How often should someone get screening for cervical cancer?
-About every 3 years
What are breast lobules?
-mammary glands that manufacture the milk
What tests are there for finding breast cancer?
1. Self-exams
2. Mammograms
*Both are important
Where is the epididymis locates?
-It goes over the testes
How does temperature affect the testes?
-Heat; they go farther from the body
-Cold; they go closer to the body
What hormone does hypothalamus secrete?
-GnRA
What is the building block for steroid hormones?
-Cholesterol
Can pregnancy occur after ovulation?
-Yes
How does a woman's BBT vary over the course of her cycle?
-Follicular; temperature is relatively a little low
-Ovulation; temperature sharply plummets
-Luteal; temperature sharply rises, length is constant
What were the aspects of the Ruble experiment?
-Participants; women in middle of their luteal phase and that weren't on BC pills
-Hooked to fake EEG machines, which was said to predict how soon they'd have their periods
-Gp 1; period supposedly due in 1-2 days
-Gp 2; period supposedly due in 7-10 days
-Gp 3; told nothing (control gp)
*RESULTS; Gp 1 reported feeling the most water retention and pain compared to other groups
What is the number of weeks post-conception that the gonads develop into ovaries and testes?
*6-12 weeks
What hormone triggers ovulation?
-LH
What is the third phase of the menstrual cycle?
-The luteal phase
What hormone controls sperm production?
-FSH
What is FSH regulated by?
-Inhibin
How long after conception is the gender of the fetus determinable by external genitalia?
*12-16 weeks
What do the Mullerian ducts eventually develop into?
-The Fallopian Tubes
What part of the male anatomy produces 60% of seminal fluid?
-seminal vesicles
What is the accuracy of home pregnancy tests?
*54-67%
-16% false positive
What hormone do tests detect to determine pregnancy?
-Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
How long post-conception are urine tests accurate for detecting pregnancy?
-about 14 days post-conception (around time of missed period)
How long post-conception are new blood tests accurate in detecting pregnancy?
-7 days post-conception