Psych-Research Methods-Unit 2-Chapter 1: Psychology And Science (Pp. 1-15)

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1.What is the difference between empirical and non-empiricalmethods of knowing about behaviour?

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Every day, all of us use several methods to learn about behavior. We can divide these methods into two broad categories: empirical methods and non- empirical: based on experience empirical methods. The term empirical simply means based on experience.

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2.When is logic not a good way of knowing the truth?

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Logic can tell you that a statement is false because it draws an improper conclusion. But a statement can be logically valid and still not be true because it assumes something to be the case that is not.

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3.Describe two basic limitations of common sense as a way ofknowing.

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Common sense as a way of knowing has two basic limitations. First, standards of common sense differ from time to time and from place to place according to the attitudes and experiences of the culture.

The second limitation of common sense as a way of knowing lies in the fact that the only criterion common sense recognizes for judging the truth of a belief or practice is whether it works.

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4.How do common sense and science differ?

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Given that common sense has these two basic limitations—that it changes with time and circumstance and that it is pragmatic rather than theoretical— it is not surprising that scientific knowledge often contradicts common-sense knowledge. e. We may speak of a scientific result as being counterintuitive; that is, it goes against our notions of common sense. In fact, we consider a scientific theory to be fruitful if it predicts something that we did not expect.

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5.What does “science is objective” mean?

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Objectivity is the single most important characteristic in setting science apart from what is not science. Science deals with phenomena that are avail- able to anyone. It cannot deal with phenomena that only one person or a few people can observe. This fact distinguishes science from all systems of knowl- edge based on authority: religion, politics, nationalism, and so on. Objectivity is what makes science the universal means of achieving understanding, because it eliminates from consideration at the outset any phenomenon that cannot command the agreement of every person.

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6.What are the characteristics of science? Explain.

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Because science is an empirical enterprise, it follows that new evidence is constantly being discovered that contradicts previous knowledge.

Science is char- acterized by a willingness to let new evidence correct previous beliefs. This makes science different from perhaps every other human enterprise

Because science is empirical and self-correcting, it follows that it is also progressive

Science Is Tentative. In other words, science never claims to have the whole truth on any question because new information may make current knowledge obsolete at any time.

Because of the progressive nature of science, however, we can be reasonably confident that we are increasingly approaching the truth, rather than simply changing our ideas according to fashion or whim.

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7.What is the principle of parsimony in science?

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According to the dictionary, parsimony means stinginess. good scientist will always prefer a simpler explanation to a more complex one, other things being equal. In our example, the explanation in terms of taste preferences is simpler than attributing sophisticated mental processes to the cat.

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8.Briefly describe the working assumptions of science.

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Most scientists agree that one of science’s fundamental assumptions is the reality of the world. Philosophers call this assumption the doctrine of realism: the notion that the objects of scientific study in the world exist apart from their being perceived by us

Another crucial assumption of science is rationality—that the world is understandable by way of logical thinking. If the world were irrational—if it could not be understood by using principles of logic—then there would be no point in trying to understand it by any means whatsoever

The reality and rationality of the world would not be much use to science without the assumption of regularity. Regularity means that we assume that the world follows the same laws at all times and in all places.

scientist assumes that we can discover the way the world works without having a higher being or book reveal it to us. This belief in discoverability is the difference between a puzzle and a mystery. A puzzle can be solved by a person using ordinary means. A mystery, using the word in the strict sense, cannot be understood by human means but must have its solution revealed by someone who knows the mystery.

To do science, it is necessary to assume that events do not just happen by themselves or for no reason. Thus, the idea that every event has a cause is a basic tenet of science. In fact, some have defined science as a search for causes of events.

A belief that all events are caused is called determinism. A strict determinist holds that if it were possible to know all laws of behavior and the exact condition of persons, together with everything that was influencing them at a particular time, it would be possible to predict exactly what they would do next.

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9.Describe the criteria for establishing a cause-and-effect relationship.

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In order to establish a cause-and-effect rela- tionship between events (such as eating ice cream and becoming sick), at least three criteria must be met (Mill, 2006). First, the cause has to come before the event, which is called temporal precedence. temporal precedence: something that occurs prior to another thing.

The next criterion is co-variation of cause and effect, or basically, that when the cause is present, the effect happens.

It is worth mentioning that the co-variation need not be perfect; some events may be considered causes of other events, even if the relationship between them is less than constant and shows probabilistic co-variation. probabilistic co-variation: statistical association of a cause with an effect.

The last criterion for establishing a cause-and-effect relationship is the elimination of alternative explanations. elimination of alternative explanations: no explanation for an effect other than the purported cause is possible