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84 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Ch. 1
Psych |
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict, and control the behaviors and mental process of both humans and animals.
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Goals
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The goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict, and control the behaviors and mental process of both humans & animals. The goals of psychology can be thought of in terms of what, why, when, & how behaviors and mental processes occur.
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Scientific Method
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Psychologists use the scientific method to reduce bias and error in their observations. The steps
of the scientific method include asking a question, turning your question into a hypothesis - a statement about what you believe the actual answer is, testing your hypothesis, drawing a conclusion, and reporting your findings. Your findings can then be further strengthened if other researchers conduct a study and draw the same conclusions as you did, or in other words if other researchers replicate your findings. The method you use to test your hypothesis depends on which of the four goals of psychology you are attempting to achieve. If you would like to answer the question of “what” (goal = describe), you would use a descriptive method. |
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Descriptive Method
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Naturalistic observation provides a realistic picture of behavior but can become biased through the observer effect (subjects act differently when they know they are being watched) and observer bias (the researcher only sees what he or she wants to see). Laboratory observation is similar to naturalistic observation but the participants are observed in a laboratory setting instead of “out in nature.” Sometimes a researcher will disguise herself as an actual participant in order to reduce the observer effect. This approach is called participant observation. A case study is a detailed investigation of one individual, or case, and can provide a great deal of information about that one person but is hard to generalize to a larger population. For a survey, researchers ask a group of subjects a series of questions. Surveys allow researchers to gather a lot of information quickly. However, with a survey there is no guarantee that the subjects will answer the questions truthfully.
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Experiment, Control & Variable
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In an experiment, the researcher manipulates a variable (the independent variable) and measures some response from the participants (the dependent variable). In order to measure the dependent variable, the researcher must come up with an operational definition for the variable. An operational definition is a set of instructions that explains exactly how to measure the variable. For example, aggressive behavior could be operationally defined as the number of times a subject swings a toy sword in a five-minute observation period. The overall goal of the experiment is to keep everything the same except the independent variable. In order to accomplish this, the researcher usually observes two groups: an experimental group and a control group. The researcher will most likely use random assignment to determine which participants will go in which group. Often, the control group receives a fake treatment in order to control for the placebo effect in which the participant’s expectations actually influence the results of the experiment.
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Critical Thinking & 4 criteria
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Understanding the scientific method can help you in your daily life as you apply the four principles of critical thinking to problems you face day to day. The four criteria are that (1) most truths need to be tested, (2) all evidence is not equal, (3) authorities are not always right, and (4) an open mind is still important.
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Ch. 2
Nervous System |
a complex network of cells throughout your body. Since psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes, understanding how the nervous system works provides fundamental information about what is going on inside your body when you engage in a specific behavior, feel a particular emotion, or have an abstract thought. The field of study that deals with these types of questions is called neuroscience. The role of the nervous system is to carry information. Without your nervous system, you would not be able to think, feel, or act. The cells in the nervous system that carry information are called neurons. Information enters a neuron at the dendrites, flows through the cell body (or soma) and down the axon in order to pass the information on to the next cell. Although, neurons are the cells that carry the information, most of the nervous system consists of glial cells. Glial cells provide food, support, and insulation to the neuron cells. The insulation around the neuron is called myelin and works in a way very similar to the plastic coating of an electrical wire. Bundles of myelin-coated axons are wrapped together in cable like structures called nerves.
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structure of neurons, dendrites
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Neurons use an electrical signal to send information from one end of its cell to the other. At rest, a neuron has a negative charge inside and a positive charge outside. When a signal arrives, gates in the cell wall next to the signal open and the positive charge moves inside. The positive charge inside the cell causes the next set of gates to open and those positive charges move inside. In this way, the electrical signal makes its way down the length of the cell. The movement of the electrical signal is called an action potential. After the action potential is over, the positive charges get pumped back out of the cell and the neuron returns to its negatively charged state. This condition is called the resting potential. A neuron acts in an all-or-none manner. This means the neuron either has an action potential or it does not. The neuron indicates the strength of the signal by how many action potentials are produced or “fired” within a certain amount of time.
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axons, synapse
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Neurons pass information on to target cells using a chemical signal. When the electrical signal travels
down the axon and reaches the other end of the neuron called the axon terminal, it enters the very tip of the terminal called the synaptic knob and causes the neurotransmitters in the synaptic vesicles to be released into the fluid-filled space between the two cells. This fluid-filled space is called the synapse or the synaptic gap. The neurotransmitters are the chemical signals the neuron uses to communicate with its target cell. The neurotransmitters fit into the receptor sites of the target cell and create a new electrical signal that then can be transmitted down the length of the target cell. |
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Peripheral Nervous System
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made up of all the nerves and neurons that are NOT in the brain or spinal cord. This includes all the nerves that connect to your eyes, ears, skin, mouth, and muscles.
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PNS sub systems
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The PNS is divided into two parts, the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system consists of all the nerves coming from our sensory systems, called the sensory pathway, and all the nerves going to the skeletal muscles that control our voluntary movements, called the motor pathway. The autonomic nervous system is made up of the nerves going to and from our organs, glands, and involuntary muscles and is divided into two parts: the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. The sympathetic division turns on the body’s fight-or-flight reactions, which include responses such as increased heart rate, increased breathing, and dilation of your pupils. The parasympathetic division controls your body when you are in a state of rest to keep the heart beating regularly, to control normal breathing, and to coordinate digestion. The parasympathetic division is active most of the time.
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Parts of brain & functions
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The brain can be roughly divided into three sections: the brainstem, the cortex, and the structures under the cortex.
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a. brainstem
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The brainstem is the lowest part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord. The brainstem contains four important structures. The medulla, controls life-sustaining functions such as heart beat, breathing, and swallowing. The pons influences sleep, dreaming, and coordination of movements. The reticular formation plays a crucial role in attention and arousal, and the cerebellum controls all of the movements we make without really “thinking” about it.
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b. cortex
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The outer wrinkled covering of the brain is the cortex, and the structures under the cortex are essentially everything between the brainstem and the cortex. One main group of structures under the cortex is the limbic system. The limbic system includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala. The thalamus receives input from your sensory systems, processes it, and then passes it on to the appropriate area of the cortex. The hypothalamus interacts with the endocrine system to regulate body temperature, thirst, hunger, sleeping, sexual activity, and mood. It appears that the hippocampus is critical for the formation of long-term memories and for memories of the locations of objects. The amygdala is a small almond-shaped structure that is involved in our response to fear.
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c. hemispheres
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The outer part of the brain, or cortex, is divided into right and left sections called cerebral hemispheres. The two hemispheres communicate with each other through a thick band of neurons called the corpus callosum. Each cerebral hemisphere can be roughly divided into four sections. These sections are called lobes.
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d. occipital lobe
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The occipital lobes are at the back of the brain and process visual information.
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e. parietal lobe
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The parietal lobes are located at the top and back half of the brain and deal with information regarding
touch, temperature, body position, and possibly taste. |
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f. temporal lobe
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The temporal lobes are just behind your temples and process auditory information.
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g. frontal lobe
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The frontal lobes are located at the front of your head and are responsible for higher mental functions such as planning, personality, and decision making, as well as language and motor movements. Motor movements are controlled by a band of neurons located at the back of the frontal lobe called the motor cortex.
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Cerebrum
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The cerebrum is made up of the two cerebral hemispheres and the structures connecting them. The left hemisphere is typically more active when a person is using language, math, and other analytical skills, while the right hemisphere shows more activity during tasks of perception, recognition, and expression of emotions. This split in the tasks of the brain is referred to as lateralization.
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Ch. 3
Adaptations |
Rods detect the brightness of light and send information about the levels of black, white, and shades of gray. The rods are located over the entire retina except at the very center. Rods are extremely sensitive to light but produceimages with low acuity, or sharpness. Our eyes’ ability to adapt to a dark room and eventually see objects is mediated by the rods in our eyes and is called dark adaptation. Cones make up the remaining 30 percent of the sensory receptors in your eyes and are located mainly in the center of the retina. Cones transmit information about color and produce images with very high acuity. Our ability to quickly adapt when we enter a bright room is called light adaptation and is accomplished by the cones.
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Taste
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The sense of taste, or gustation, is activated by chemicals that dissolve in the mouth. The sensory receptors are receptor cells found within the taste buds that are located on the little bumps on the tongue, cheek, and roof of your mouth The little bumps that you can actually see with your eye are called papillae. Five basic tastes have been proposed; they are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. Umami is the newest taste and corresponds to a “brothy” taste like the taste from chicken soup.
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Olefaction, parts & processes
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The sense of smell, or olfaction, is also a chemical sense. Humans have about 10 million olfactory
receptor cells located in a 1 square inch area at the top of the nasal passage. Olfactory receptor cells send their axons directly to the olfactory bulbs which are located right under the frontal lobes. |
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Gestalt principles
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figure-ground relationships, closure, similarity, continuity, contiguity, proximity, and common region.
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a. figure ground relationships
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The principle of figure-ground relationships can be illustrated by looking at reversible figures, which are visual illusions in which the figure and ground seem to switch back and forth.
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b. closure
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Tendency to complete figures that are incomplete
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c. similarity
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Tendency to perceive things that look similar to ea other as being part of same grp.
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d. continuity
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Tendency to perceive things as simply as possible, with a continuous pattern rather than with complex, broken up pattern.
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e. contiquity
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Tendency to perceive two things that happen close together in time as being related.
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f. proximity
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Tendency to perceive objects that are close to ea other as being part of same grouping.
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g. Common region
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Tendency is to perceive objects that are in a common area as being in a group.
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Perceptual illusions
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An illusion is a perception that does not correspond to reality. Some famous visual illusions include the Müller-Lyer illusion, the moon illusion, and illusions of motion.
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Muller-Lyer illusion pg 123
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Distortion happens when viewer tries to determine if lines are exactly same length. They are identical, but one line looks longer. (Always the one with angles on end facing outward.)
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Moon illusion
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Moon on horizon appears to be much larger than moon in sky. Moon in sky is all alone with no cues for depth surrounding it. On horizon, moon appears behind trees, house (cues) that make horizon seem very far away.
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Illusions of motion
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Perceiving an object as moving when it is really still. Autokinetic effect: small stationary light in darkened room will appear to move, because there are no surrounding cues to indicate that light is not moving. Stroboscopic motion-rapid series of still pictures will seem to be in motion (flipping pages quickly). Phi phenomenon-lights turned on in sequence appear to move (chasing lights seen on houses at x-mas time).
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ch. 4
Stages of sleep |
Based on brain wave activity recorded with the use of an EEG, sleep has been divided into two different types, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-REM sleep. Non-REM sleep is a deep, restful sleep and consists of four stages. Stage 1 sleep is also called light sleep and occurs when brain activity begins to shift from alpha to theta wave activity. Many people experience a hypnic jerk in this stage when their body jerks suddenly and wakes them up. As body temperature continues to drop and heart rate slows, sleep spindles begin to appear on the EEG recording, signaling Stage 2 of non-REM sleep. Stage 3 occurs when the slow, large delta waves first appear; and when delta waves account for more than 50 percent of the total brain activity, the person is said to be in Stage 4, the deepest stage of sleep. After a person cycles through Stages 1-4 and back, instead of entering Stage 1, people experience REM sleep. During this type of sleep, the brain is active and displays beta wave activity, the eye exhibits rapid movements, and the skeletal muscles of the body are temporarily paralyzed. This paralysis is referred to as REM paralysis.
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Sleep disorders
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There are a large number of disorders associated with sleep. Sleepwalking, or somnambulism, occurs in Stage 4, as well as the rare disorder of night terrors. Most people state that they are not aware
of the actions they committed during a sleepwalking episode. The explanation of “sleepwalking” has been used as a successful defense in several trials for murder, but in these cases, the term sleepwalking is more likely referring to the condition known as REM behavior disorder. Insomnia is the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good night of quality sleep. Sleep apnea is a disorder in which a person actually stops breathing for brief periods throughout the night. Narcolepsy is a genetic disorder in which a person suddenly enters REM sleep during the day. The attack can occur many times throughout the day and without warning. The attacks often occur with cataplexy, or a sudden loss of muscle tone. |
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Freud's interpretation of dreams
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Sigmund Freud believed that dreams represented our unconscious thoughts and desires. He called the actual content of our dream the manifest content and the real meaning of the dream the latent content.
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manifest content
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Actual dream itself. For example, if Chad has a dream in which he is trying to climb out of bathtub, the manifest content of dream is exactly that-he is trying to climb out of bathtub.
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latent content
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meaning of dream lay latent or hidden. Symbols. Water in tub might symbolize waters of birth, and tub might symbolize mother's womb.
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Drugs & Classifications
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stimulants
depressants narcotics hallucinogens |
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Stimulants
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Specifically, stimulants activate the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system. Amphetamines are man-made stimulants and include drugs such as benzedrine, methedrine, and dexedrine. Large doses of amphetamines can lead to a severe mental disturbance and paranoia called amphetamine psychosis. Cocaine is a naturally occurring stimulant found in coca plant leaves. Cocaine produces feelings of happiness, energy, power, and pleasure and also reduces pain and suppresses appetite. Cocaine is highly addictive and can cause convulsions and death even in first-time users. Signs of cocaine abuse include compulsive use, loss of control, and disregard for the consequences of use. Nicotine is a mild yet toxic naturally-occurring stimulant that raises blood pressure, accelerates the heart, and provides a rush of sugar into the bloodstream. Nicotine has been found to be more addictive than heroin or alcohol and is linked to nearly 430,000 deaths in the United States each year. Caffeine is a third naturally occurring stimulant that increases alertness and can enhance the effectiveness of certain pain relievers.
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depressants
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Depressants are drugs that slow down the central nervous system and include barbiturates,
benzodiazepines, and alcohol. Barbituates have a strong sedative, or sleep-inducing, effect and are known as the major tranquilizers. The minor tranquilizers, or benzodiazepines, have a relatively minor depressant effect and are used to lower anxiety and reduce stress. Some common benzodiazepines include Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan, Librium, and Rohypnol (also known as the date rape drug). The most commonly used and abused depressant is alcohol. |
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narcotics
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Narcotics reduce the sensation of pain by binding to and activating the receptor sites for endorphins. All narcotics are derived from the plant based substance of opium. Opium itself is made from the opium poppy and reduces pain as well as increases feelings of well-being. Morphine is made from opium and is used for the short-term relief of severe pain. Due to its highly addictive nature, the use of morphine is carefully controlled. Heroin is also made from opium but is not used as a medicine due to the fact that it is more addictive than morphine or opium. Narcotics are thought to be so addictive because they mimic the action of endorphins and subsequently cause the body to stop producing its own endorphins so that without the drug, there is no protection from pain. Methadone is made from opium but does not produce the feelings of euphoria produced by morphine and heroin. Methadone can be used to attempt to control heroin dependency. In addition to methadone treatment, heroin addiction is treated with behavioral therapies such as contingency management therapies and cognitive approaches such as cognitive-behavior interventions.
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hallucinogens
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Hallucinogens are psychogenic drugs that create false sensory perceptions, also known as
hallucinations. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is synthesized from a grain fungus and is one of the most potent hallucinogens. Phenyl cyclohexyl piperdine or PCP is a synthesized drug that can act as a hallucinogen, stimulant, depressant, or analgesic depending on the dosage. PCP has also been shown to lead to acts of violence against others or suicide. MDMA or Ecstasy is an amphetamine that also produces hallucinations. Because of their stimulant and hallucinogenic properties, PCP and MDMA are now classified as stimulatory hallucinogenics. Naturally occurring hallucinogenics include mescaline, psilocybin, and marijuana. The effects of marijuana are more mild than other hallucinogens, yet marijuana use can lead to a powerful psychological dependency. |
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Know visual page 167
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xx
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ch. 5
Elements classical conditioning, & apply it. |
In classical conditioning, an organism learn to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original stimulus that produced the response in the first place. The original stimulus is called the unconditioned (or “unlearned”) stimulus (UCS) and the reflex response is the unconditioned response (UCR). If a neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS, it will eventually produce the same kind of reflexive response. At this point, the NS is called a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response is called a conditioned, or learned, response (CR).
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Poor Albert
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John Watson demonstrated a particular type of classical conditioning called conditional emotional response. After little Albert had been conditioned to fear a white rat, he became afraid of anything white & fuzzy.
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Other conditioned responses in humans
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Conditioned taste aversions are a unique form of classicalconditioning that can occur with only one
neutral stimulus – unconditioned stimulus pairing. Conditioning is believed to occur so rapidly due to the biological preparedness of most mammals. (Something you eat, and get sick on ..you won't want to eat again.) |
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Reinforcement
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Reinforcement is a consequence that is pleasurable and strengthens the response that came before it. There are two types of reinforcers, primary reinforcers satisfy basic needs and don’t need to be learned. Secondary reinforcers get their reinforcing power through prior associations with a primary reinforcer and thus are learned. Reinforcement works by adding a pleasurable consequence after a response occurs (positive reinforcement) or removing something unpleasant after a response occurs (negative reinforcement). Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that the response will occur again.
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Punishment
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Punishment, on the other hand, always decreases the likelihood of a response. Punishment is any consequence of a response that causes that response to be less likely to happen again. While reinforcement strengthens a response that already exists, the goal of punishment is often to eliminate the response, which is usually a much harder task. Typically punishment only temporarily suppresses the response. Punishment by application describes the situation in which a response is followed by the addition of something unpleasant. Punishment by application is not the most effective way to modify behavior and has a number of serious drawbacks. Punishment by removal occurs when a response is followed by the removal of something pleasant. Punishment can be made more effective if it is administered immediately after the undesired behavior, is administered consistently, and is paired with
reinforcement for the right behavior. |
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ch. 6
3 stage process of memory |
Memory can be thought of as an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it, and then retrieves information from storage. All the current models of memory involve the three processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval.
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Capacity of STM, chunking
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Chunking is the process of reorganizing the information into meaningful units. The duration of short-term memory is between 10-30 seconds without rehearsal.
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Retrieval cues; serial position effect
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A retrieval cue is a stimulus that aids in the process of remembering. The serial position effect describes the finding that information at the beginning and end of a list is more likely to be remembered than the information in the middle.
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Forgetting; incoding failure, memory trace, decay, interference
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Herman Ebbinghaus was one of the first scientists to systematically study the process of forgetting. Using lists of nonsense syllables, he discovered that most forgetting occurs in the initial hour after the
material is learned. He presented his findings in a visual graph called the curve of forgetting. There are at least four different causes for forgetting. Encoding failure occurs when the information does not make it past the initial encoding process and never really becomes a memory. Another possible cause of forgetting is the decay (or disuse) of the memory trace in short-term memory or the disuse of the information in long-term memory. The final two causes of forgetting discussed in the textbook have to do with interference. Proactive interference occurs when information from the past disrupts newly learned information. Retroactive interference occurs when the newly learned information interferes with the memories of the information from the past. Ebbinghaus found he could greatly improve memory if he spaced out his study sessions, a technique called distributed practice, as opposed to “cramming” or trying to learn all the information the night before the exam. |
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ch. 7
Problem solving & decision making |
Problem solving involves using our thoughts or cognitions to reach a goal and consists of at least four different techniques. Trial-and-error problem solving makes use of mechanical solutions. When someone uses algorithms to problem-solve they are following step-by-step procedures to solve the problem. Heuristics are general “rules of thumb” that can be applied to many situations. Means-end
analysis is an example of one type of heuristic where the difference between where you are and where you want to be is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference. Insight consists of solving the problem by having a sudden moment of inspiration or “aha!” moment. Artificial intelligence is the creation of a machine that can think like a human, and is represented today through computer program such as Deep Blue. |
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Measuring intelligence; hx of intelligence test
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Intelligence can be defined as the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems. Currently, there is still much disagreement on exactly what is meant by the term “intelligence.” In 1904, Charles Spearman proposed that intelligence was split between two abilities. The first ability was a general intelligence, labeled the g factor, and the other was a specific intelligence referred to as the s factor. Spearman believed that both the g and s factors could be measured using standardized intelligence tests. Howard Gardner, on the other hand, proposed that at least nine different kinds of intelligence exist. Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence, which states that intelligence can be divided into three types; analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. In France in 1916, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed the first formal test for intelligence in order to determine a child’s mental age.
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Characteristics of Giftedness
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Individuals who receive scores of 130 or above on intelligence tests are referred to as gifted. Socially well adjusted, skilled leaders, above avg in height, weight, physical attractiveness.
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Relationship betw language & thought
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The relationship between language and thought has been studied extensively. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, also known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis, proposes that the words people use determine how they think about themselves and the world. An opposing theory, known as cognitive universalism, proposes that certain ways of thinking are shared among all groups of people and influence the development of language in similar ways. Animals other than humans demonstrate a diverse ability to communicate but it is unclear whether or not they have the capability for language as demonstrated by the ability to use abstract symbols to communicate. Kanzi, a bonobo chimpanzee, has demonstrated an ability to understand about 150 spoken English words. However, none of the animals studied to date appear to have been able to use and comprehend syntax.
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ch 8
Nature v Nurture |
One of the biggest debates among developmental psychologists is the question of nature versus nurture. Nature refers to the influence of everything you inherited genetically from your biological parents and nurture refers to the influence your environment has had on your development. More recently, the question of interest has switched from nature versus nurture to the interaction of nature and nurture. Behavioral genetics is the field of science that studies the interactions of nature, or genes, and nurture, or the environment.
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Chromosome, DNA
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The biggest unit is the chromosomes, which are long strands of DNA twisted together and wound up in coils. The chromosomes are found in the nucleus of all the cells of your body except red blood cells. Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes, 23 from the mother’s egg and 23 from the father’s sperm. Each chromosome from the mother matches a chromosome from the father to form 23 pairs. Both chromosomes in the pair have the same genes (for example, each chromosome contains a gene for hair color). Even though they contain the same gene, the instructions on that gene might be slightly different; for example, one of the genes has the instructions for blonde hair while the other gene contains the instructions for brown hair. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes, and the last pair (the 23rd) contains the instructions for determining sex and are called the sex chromosomes.
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Genes
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Genetics is the science of heredity and involves the study of DNA, genes, and chromosomes. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the smallest unit of the three and are strands of molecules linked together like a twisted ladder. The links are made up of amines and their names are abbreviated with the letters A, T, G, and C. The next largest unit are the genes, which are sections of the ladder containing instructions on how to make a specific protein. One way to think of genes is as individual recipes for proteins. Dominant genes are the genes that are more likely to influence the trait. Recessive genes are not as strong and will only get their instructions carried out if the other chromosome in the pair also contains a recessive gene. In reality, almost all traits are determined by multiple gene pairs. This is called polygenic inheritance. Some diseases result from problems with recessive genes and are only expressed when both parents have the recessive gene, while some disorders result from the fact that there are the wrong number of chromosomes in the fertilizing egg or sperm.
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Piaget
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Jean Piaget believed that the primary factor in the development of a child’s cognitive abilities was the child’s interactions with objects in the environment. Piaget believed that children form mental concepts or schemes as they experience new situations and events. He proposed four stages of cognitive development from infancy to adolescence. The sensorimotor stage, lasting from infancy to age 2, involves the use of the senses and muscles to learn about the environment and includes the development of object permanence and symbolic thought. The pre-operational stage lasts from age 2 to 7 and involve language & concept development through the process of asking questions. Children in this stage display the ability of symbolic thought through make- believe play and also display characteristics of egocentrism, centration, and irreversibility. The concrete operational stage lasts from age 7 to 12 and includes the development of concepts such as conservation and reversible thinking. However, children in this stage are still unable to deal with abstract concepts such as freedom or love. The formal operational stage is the final stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, and lasts from the age of 12 on. During this stage abstract, hypothetical thinking develops. Research suggests that about one-half of the adults in the U.S. reach this stage of cognitive development. Piaget’s concepts have been successfully applied in schools but have also been criticized for their emphasis on distinct stages of development, overemphasis on egocentrism, and failure to mention the role of the family or social environment in the child’s development.
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Temperament; attachment, pg 332
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Temperament refers to the behavioral and emotional characteristics observed in infancy. Several researchers have suggested the existence of three types of temperaments, easy, difficult, and slow to warm up. Attachment is the emotional bond between an infant and caregiver. Mary Ainsworth and others studied attachment using the Strange Situation & observed four attachment styles, secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized/disoriented. Harry Harlow studied the nature of attachment behaviors by observing Rhesus monkeys interact with two different “surrogate” mothers. He found that contact comfort was an important factor in attachment.
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Erikson's psycho-social stages; know crisis
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Erik Erikson, proposed an eight-stage theory of development that occurred over the entire life span. Each stage involved an emotional crises in the individual’s social interactions. The first four stages occurred during infancy and childhood and consisted of the crises of trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiation versus guilt, and industry versus inferiority.
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infancy 1-12 mo
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trust v mistrust. Crisis is to learn to trust or mistrust others based on whether or not their needs -such as food and comfort are met.
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toddler 1-3 yr
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autonomy v shame doubt. Crisis is to realize that they can direct their own behavior.
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preschool 3-6 yr
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intiative v guilt. Crisis is the challenge to control own behavior, such as controlling their exuberance when they are in a restaurant.
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school age 6-12
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industry v inferiority. Crisis is succeeding in learning new skills & obtaining new knowledge -they develop sense of industry, feeling of competence arising from their work & effort.
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adolesence 11-14
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personal identity v role confusion. Crisis is deciding who or what they want to be in terms of occupation, beliefs, attitudes and behavior patterns.
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early adult 20-40
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intimacy v isolation. Crisis is to be able to share who they are with another person in close, committed relationship.
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mid adult 40-65
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generativity v self absorption. Crisis is to be creative, productive, and nurturant of the next generation.
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older adult 65+
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ego integrity v despair. Crisis is whether person will reach wisdom, spiritual tranquility, sense of wholeness, acceptance of his life.
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Gender role development
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Most children begin to understand gender differences around the age of 2 and begin to develop their own gender identity. Gender identity is heavily influenced by cultural expectations as well as biology.
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Stages of death & dying
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Elizabeth Kübler-Ross proposed a well-known theory of the dying process. Based on her work with dying patients, Kübler-Ross felt that people experienced a series of five different emotions including denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Others see dying as more of a process rather than a series of stages.
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denial
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refusal to believe that diagnosis of death is real
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anger
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anger at death itself & feeling of helplessness to change things
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bargaining
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tries to make a deal with God, or doctors, etc
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depression
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sadnesss from losses already experienced and those yet to come
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acceptance
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when person accepted the inevitable & quietly waits for death.
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More on Piaget's Stages:
Sensorimotor -(birth to two) |
sensory & physical interaction
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Preoperational thought- (2-7 yrs)
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language-tool of exploration
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Concrete operations (7-12 yrs)
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logical thought possible
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Formal operations (12 yr to adult)
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abstract concepts &hypothetical thinking
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