Psych Exam Two

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Memory

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the ability to store and use information; also the store of what has been learned and remembered

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there-stage model of memory

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classification of memories based on duration as sensory, short-term, and long-term

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sensory memory

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the part of memory that holds information in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time, usually about a half a second or less

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short-term memory

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the part of memory that temporarily (for 2-30 seconds) stores a limited amount of information before it is either transferred to long-term storage or forgotten

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long-term memory

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the part of memory that has the capacity to store a vast amount of information for as little as 30 seconds and as long as a lifetime

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working memory

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the part of memory required to attend to solve a problem at hand; often used interchangeably with short-term memory

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chunking

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the process of breaking down a list of items to be remembered into a smaller set of meaningful units.

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rehearsal

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the process of repeatedly practicing material so that it enters long-term memory.

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serial position effect

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the tendency to have better recall for items in a list according to their position in the list.

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implicit memory

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kind of memory made up of knowledge based on previous experience, such as skills that we perform automatically once we have mastered them; resides outside conscious awareness.

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procedural memory

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kind of memory made up of implicit knowledge for almost any behavior or physical skill we have learned.

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priming

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a kind of implicit memory that arises when recall is improved by earlier exposure to the same or similar stimuli

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explicit memory

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knowledge that consists of the conscious recall of facts and events; also known as declarative memory.

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semantic memory

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form of memory that recalls facts and general knowledge, such as what we learned in school

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episodic memory

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form of memory that recalls the experiences we have had

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encoding

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the process by which the brain attends to, takes in, and integrates new information; the first stage of long-term memory formation

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automatic processing

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encoding of information that occurs with little effort or conscious attention to the task.

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effortful processing

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encoding of information that occurs with careful attention and conscious effort.

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levels of processing

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the concept that the more deeply people encode information, the better they will recall it

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mnemonic device

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a method devised to help remember information, such as a rhyme or acronym.

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storage

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the retention of memory over time; the third stage of long-term memory formation

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hierarchies

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a way of organizing related pieces of information from the most specific feature they have in common to the most general.

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consolidation

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the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory; the second stage of long-term memory formation

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schemas

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mental frameworks that develop from our experiences with particular people, objects, or events

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retrieval

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the recovery of information stored in memory; the fourth stage of long-term memory.

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prefrontal cortex

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the front-most region of the frontal lobes that plays an important role in attention, appropriate social behavior, impulse control, and working memory.

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long-term potentiation

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strengthening of a synaptic connection that results when synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron

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retroactive interference

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the disruption of memory because new experiences or information cause people to forget previously learned experiences or information

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interference

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disruption of memory because other information competes with the information we are trying to recall.

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proactive interference

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disruption of memory because previously learned information interferes with the learning of new information.

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forgetting

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the weakening or loss of memories over time

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transience

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most common type of forgetfulness due to the fleeing nature of some memories

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forgetting curve

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a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time

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absentmindedness

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a form of forgetfulness that results from inattention

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blocking

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the inability to retrieve some information once it is stored

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repression

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a form of blocking, in which retrieval of memories that have been encoded and stored is actively inhibited

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misattribution

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belief that a memory came from one source when in fact it came from another

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consistency bias

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selective recall of past events to fit our current beliefs

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persistence

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the repeated recall of pleasant or unpleasant experiences even when we actively try to forget them

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suggestibility

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problem with memory that occurs when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions by someone else or some other source.

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recovered memory

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a memory from a real event that was encoded, stored, but not retrieved for a long period of time until some later events brings it suddenly to consciousness

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false memories

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memories for events that never happend, but were suggested by someone or something

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amnesia

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memory loss due to brain injury or disease

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anterograde amnesia

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the inability to remember events and experiences that occur after an injury or the onset of a disease

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retrograde amnesia

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an inability to recall events or experiences that happened before the onset of a disease or injury

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human development

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the study of change and continuity in the individual across the life span

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germinal stage

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the first prenatal stage of development, which begins at conception and lasts two weeks

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zygote

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the single cell that results when a sperm fertilizes an egg

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embryo

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2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception, when all of the major organs form

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embryonic stage

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the second prenatal stage, from formation of bone cells 8 weeks after conception and ends at birth

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neural migration

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the movement of neurons from one part of the fetal brain to their more permanent destination; occurs during months 3-5 of the fetal stage

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prenatal programming

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the process by which events in the womb alter the development of physical and psychological health

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teratogens

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substances that can disrupt normal prenatal development and cause lifelong deficits

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fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

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a consequence of prenatal alcohol exposure that causes multiple problems, notably brain damage and mental retardation

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critical period

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specific period in development when individuals are most receptive to a particular kind of input from the environment (such as visual stimulation and language)

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object permanence

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the ability to realize that objects still exist when they are not being sensed

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sensorimotor stage

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piaget's first stage of cognitive development (ages 0-2), when infants learn about the world by using their senses and by moving their bodies

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animistic thinking

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belief that inanimate objects are alive

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preoperational stage

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the second major stage of cognitive development (ages 2-5), which begins with the emergence of symbolic thought

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egocentrism

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viewing the world from one's own perspective and not being capable of seeing things from another from another person's perspective

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conservation

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recognition that when some properties (such as shape of an object change, other properties (such as volume) remain constant

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concrete operational stage

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piaget's third stage of cognitive development, which spans ages 6-11, during which the child can perform mental operations-such as reversing- on real objects or events

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formal operational stage

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piaget's final stage of cognitive development, from age 11 or 12 on through adulthood, when formal logic is possible

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theory of mind

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ideas and knowledge about how other people's minds work

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conventional level

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the second level in kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning during which the person values caring, trust, and relationships as well as the social order and lawfulness

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preconventional level

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the first level in kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, focusing on avoiding punishment or maximizing rewards

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postconventional level

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the third level in kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, in which the person recognizes universal moral rules that may trump unjust or immoral local rules

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imprinting

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he rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after birth

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attachment

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the strong emotional connection that develops their primary caregiver (typically shown at around 9 months of age)

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secure attachment

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attachment style characterized by infants who will gradually explore new situations when the caregiver leaves and initiate contact when the caregiver returns after separation

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anxious-resistant attachment

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attachment style characterized by infants who are ambivalent when separated and reunited with their caregiver

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anxious-avoidant

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attachment style characterized by infants who stay calm when their primary caregiver leaves and who ignore and avoid her when she returns

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social referencing

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the ability to make use of social and emotional information from another person-especially a caregiver-in an uncertain situation

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emotional competence

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the ability to control emotions and know when it is appropriate to the beginning of adolescence

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menarche

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the first menstrual period

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spermarche

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the first ejaculation

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formal operational stage

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piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development, consisting of the ability to reason abstractly, scientifically, and philosophically

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dementia

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a loss of mental function, in which many cognitive processes are impaired, such as ability to remember, reason, solve problems, make decisions, and use language

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alzheimer's disease

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a degenerative disease marked by progressive cognitive decline and characterized by a collection of symptoms, including confusion, memory loss, mood swings, and eventual loss of physical function

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temperament

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the biologically based tendency to behave in particular ways from very early in life

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generativity

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a term erik erikson used to describe the process in adulthood of creating new ideas, products or people

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consciousness

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an awareness of one's surroundings and of what's in one's mind at a given moment; monitoring of information from the environment and from one's own thoughts

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coma

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a state of consciousness in which the eyes are closed and the person is unresponsive and unarousable

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vegetative state

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a state of minimal consciousness in which the eyes might be open, but the person is otherwise unresponsive

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mindfulness

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a heightened awareness of the present moment, whether of events in one's environment or in one's own mind

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attention

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the limited capacity to process information that is under conscious control

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selective attention

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the ability to focus awareness on specific features in the environment while ignoring others

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sustained attention

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the ability to maintain focused awareness on a target or idea

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meditation

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practices that people use to calm the mind, stabilize concentration, focus attention, and enhance period, including the sleep-wake cycle

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beta waves

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pattern of brain activity when one is awake; a rapid, low-energy wave

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rapid eye movements

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REM quick movements of the eye that occur during sleep, thought to mark phases of dreaming

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non-REM

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form of sleep with few eye movements, which are slow rather than fast

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alpha waves

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pattern of brain activity when one is relaxed and drowsy; slower, higher-energy waves than beta waves

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theta waves

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pattern of brain activity during stage 1 sleep; slower, lower-energy waves than alpha waves

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delta waves

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type of brain activity that dominates stage 3 sleep; higher energy than theta waves

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insomnia

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a sleep difficulty characterized by difficulty falling and staying asleep, as well as not feeling rested

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sleep apnea

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sleep difficulty that results from temporary blockage of the air passage

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sleepwalking

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sleep difficulty characterized by activities occuring during non REM sleep that usually occur when one is awake, such as walking and eating

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narcolepsy

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sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and weakness in facial and limb muscles

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hypersomnia

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sleep difficulty characterized by sleeping more than 10 hours a day for 2 weeks or more; includes urge to nap during inappropriate times

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dreams

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images, thoughts and feelings experienced during sleep

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manifest level

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freuds surface level of dreams, recalled upon by waking

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latent level

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freud's deeper, unconscious level of dreams; their meaning is found at this level

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aim

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three biologically based dimensions of consciousness-activation, input, and mode

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hypnosis

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state characterized by focused attention, suggestibility, absorption, lack of voluntary control over behavior, and suspension of critical faculties; occurs when instructed by someone trained in hypnosis

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stroop effect

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delay in reaction time when color of words, on attest and their meaning differ