Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
248 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What is the formal definition of learning?
|
A relatively enduring or permanent change in behavior or knowledge hat results from previous experience with certain stimuli and responses
|
|
|
What does the term behavior include?
|
Any observable response such as fainting, salivating, vomiting, coughing, blah blah.
|
|
|
What is classical conditioning?
|
a kind of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus
|
|
|
What is the law of effect?
|
A law that says if some random actions are followed by a pleasurable consequence or reward, the actions are strengthened and will likely occur in the future
|
|
|
What is operate conditioning?
|
A kind of learning in which the consequences that follow some behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of the behavior's occurrence in the future
|
|
|
What is cognitive learning?
|
A kind of learning that involves mental processes (attention / memory )
May be learned through observation or imitation May not involve any external rewards or require the person to perform any observable behaviors |
|
|
What is a neutral stimulus?
|
Some stimulus that causes a sensory response (being seen, heard, or smelled), but does not produce the reflex being tested
ex. the bell in the dog slobber experiment |
|
|
What is an unconditioned stimulus?
|
(UCS) Some stimulus that triggers or elicits a physiological reflex, such as salivation or eye blink
ex. food, because it makes the dog salivate |
|
|
What is an unconditioned response ( UCR) ?
|
An unlearned and involuntary physiological reflex that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
ex. salivating, because it results from seeing the food. |
|
|
How does someone establish classical conditioning?
|
-Pair the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus ( bell + food ) by first presenting the neutral stimulus and after a short time, presenting the unconditioned stimulus
|
|
|
What is a conditioned stimulus ( CS ) ?
|
A formerly neutral stimulus that has acquired the ability to elicit a response that was previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
ex. the bell after classical conditioning |
|
|
What is a conditioned response ( CR ) ?
|
Elicited by the conditioned stimulus
Similar to ( but not identical in size or amount) the unconditioned response |
|
|
What was Pavlov's procedure for his classical conditioning experiment?
|
Step 1 - Selecting a Stimulus and Response
Step 2 - Establishing Classical Conditioning ( Trial ) Step 3 - Testing for Conditioning ( Just CS - > CR ) |
|
|
What was the neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, and unconditioned response in the dentist / aftershave example?
|
Neutral stimulus - Aftershave
Unconditioned Stimulus - The dental procedures Unconditioned response - Anxiety |
|
|
What is generalization in terms of classical conditioning?
|
The tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response.
Usually, the more similar the new stim is the original conditioned stim, the larger will be the conditioned response |
|
|
What is discrimination in terms of conditioning concepts?
|
An even that occurs during classical conditioning when an organism learns to make a particular response to some stim, but not to others. ( Not reacting to nail polish ~ it's not the aftershave! , gong vs bell )
|
|
|
What is extinction in terms of conditioning concepts?
|
a procedure in which a conditioned stim is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stim and, as a result, the conditioned stim tends to no longer elicit the conditioned response
|
|
|
What is spontaneous response?
|
The tendency for the conditioned response to reappear after being extinguished even though there have been no further conditioning trials.
|
|
|
What is adaptive value?
|
The usefulness of certain abilities or traits that have evolved in animals and humans and tend to increase their chances of survival (finding food, acquiring mates, avoiding pain / injury )
|
|
|
What is taste-aversion learning?
|
Associating a particular sensory cue with getting sick and then avoiding that particulr sensory cue in the future ( bait shyness, me avoiding food that I got sick from before, etc. )
|
|
|
Who proved that taste-aversion learning did occur in just one trial and did occur even though there was significant delay between the neutral stim and the unconditioned stim?
|
Psychologist John Garcia ( getting sick after eating a certain food, and avoiding it, even after only eating it once )
|
|
|
What is preparedness in terms of conditioning?
|
The phenomenon that animals and humans are biologically prepared to associate some combination of conditioned and unconditioned stim more easily that others ( diff animals are prepared to use different sense to detect stim that are important to their survival )
|
|
|
What is a conditioned EMOTIONAL response?
|
Feeling some positive or negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a pleasant or painful event
|
|
|
What does classical conditioned of a motor response require?
|
The cerebellum
|
|
|
What does a classically conditioned emotional response require?
|
A brain structure called the amygdala
Responses involve different areas of the brain depending on whether the responses are motor or emotional |
|
|
What is the stimulus substitution theory? Who came up with it?
|
Pavlov says a neural bond or association forms in the brain between the neutral stim(tone) and the unconditioned stim(food). After repeated trials, the neutral stim. becomes a conditioned stim (tone), and acts like a substitute for the unconditioned stim (food) . Thereafter, the conditioned stim (tone) elicits a conditioned response similar to the unconditioned stim.
|
|
|
What theory came up as a result of criticisms of Pavlov's theory?
|
The contiguity theory
|
|
|
What does the contiguity theory say?
|
Classical conditioning occurs because two stim. (neutral stim. and unconditioned stim.) are paired close together in time.
As a result, the neutral stim. becomes the conditioned stim, which elicits the conditioned response |
|
|
Who came up with the explanation called cognitive perspective?
|
Robert Rescorla who showed that an association between neutral and unconditioned stim. did not necessarily occur when the two stim were closely paired in time
|
|
|
What is cognitive perspective?
|
An organism learns a predictable relationship between two stim. such that the occurrence of one stim. (neutral) predicts the occurrence of another (unconditioned).
The organism learns what to expect |
|
|
[2] What is Operant conditioning?
|
(also called instrumental conditioning) A kind of learning in which an animal / human performs some behavior, and the following consequence increases or decreases the chance that they will perform the same behavior again
|
|
|
What are some examples of operant conditioning?
|
Training a dog to sit (rewarding it when it does)
Training a rat to press a bar for food Teaching a kid how to use the toilet |
|
|
What experiment did Thorndike do? What was the law he formulated?
|
He put a cat in a puzzle box with an escape latch and the cat was rewarded with a piece of fish
The time the cat took to get out of the box decreased over time He formulated the LAW OF EFFECT |
|
|
What does the Law of Effect say?
|
Behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened, while behaviors followed by negative consequences are weakened
|
|
|
What is an operant response?
|
A response that can be modified by its consequences and is a meaningful unit of ongoing behavior that can be easily measured
|
|
|
What is operant conditioning?
|
a type of learning that focuses on how consequences effect behaviors
(as the rat presses the bar more times, more food follows, so the chance that the rat will press the bar increases) |
|
|
What is shaping?
|
a procedure in which an experimenter successively reinforces behaviors that lead up to or approximate the desired behavior ( rat faces bar, rat walks to bar, rat touches bar, rat presses bar)
|
|
|
What is superstitious behavior?
|
A behavior that increases in frequency because its occurrence is accidentally paired with the delivery of reinforcement
|
|
|
What are the steps involved in operant conditioning and some example steps (ie. toilet training)
|
1. Target behavior (goal: for kid to use toilet )
2. Preparation (take away toys and distractions, give child drinks) 3. Reinforcers (select reinforcers like candy, praise, or a huge ) 4. Shaping (kid says they need to go, kid goes to bathroom, kid sits on toilet, kid uses bathroom ) |
|
|
What is the main difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?
|
Operant conditioning involves something learning that performing or emitting some behavior is followed by a consequence which increases or decreased the chances of performing that behavior again, but in classical conditioning, something learns ta predictable relationship between the neutral and unconditioned stimuli
|
|
|
What are the characteristics ( 1 -5 ) of operant conditioning?
|
1. Goal, 2. Voluntary response, 3. Emitted response, 4. Contingent on Behavior, 5. Consequences
|
|
|
What are the characteristics ( 1-5 ) of classical conditioning?
|
1. Goal, 2. Involuntary response, 3. Elicited response, 4. Conditioned response, 5. Expectancy
|
|
|
What is a reinforcement?
|
A consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the chance that the behavior will occur again.
|
|
|
What is the formal definition of a punishment?
|
A consequence that occurs after a behavior and decreases the chance that the behavior will occur again
|
|
|
What is "Pica"?
|
A behavioral disorder, often seen in individuals with mental retardation, involves eating inedible objects or unhealthy substances ( dangerous )
|
|
|
What is positive reinforcement? A positive reinforcer?
|
-The PRESENTATION of a stimulus that increases the probability that a behavior will occur again
-A STIMULUS that increases the likelihood that a response will occur again |
|
|
(don't really get this one but )
What is negative reinforcement? |
An aversive stimulus whose removal increases the likelihood that the preceding response will occur again
[Both positive and neg reinforcers INCREASE the frequency of the responses they follow) |
|
|
What is a primary reinforcer?
|
A stimulus such as food, water, or sex, that is innately satisfying and requires no learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable
|
|
|
What are secondary reinforcers?
|
Any stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience, learned by being paired with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers
|
|
|
What is positive punishment? What is an example?
|
Presenting an aversive stimulus after a response. Decreases the chances that the response will recur.
|
|
|
Wat is negative punishment?
|
Removing a reinforcing stimulus (a child's allowance, toys) after a response. Decreases the chances that the response will recur
|
|
|
What is a schedule of reinforcement?
|
A program or rule that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by a reinforcer
|
|
|
Who was rated as the most important influence on 20th century psychology? The second most?
|
1. Freud, 2. B.F. Skinner
|
|
|
What is a cumulative record?
|
A continuous written record that shows an animals or a human's individual responses and reinforcements
|
|
|
What is continuous reinforcement?
|
Every occurrence of the operant response results in delivery of the reinforcer
|
|
|
What is a partial reinforcement?
|
A situation in which responding is reinforced only some of the time
|
|
|
What is a fixed-ratio schedule?
|
Means that a reinforcer occurs only after a fixed number of responses are made by the subject (paid for packing every 6 boxes)
|
|
|
What is a fixed-interval schedule?
|
Means that a reinforcer occurs following the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time (surfer getting big wave every 30 seconds)
|
|
|
What is a variable-ratio schedule?
|
Means that a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of correct responses has occurred (slot machine, for ex. may pay off after an AVERAGE of 25 pulls)
|
|
|
What is a variable-interval schedule?
|
Means that a reinforcer occurs following the first correct response after an average amount of time has passed
|
|
|
What is generalization in operant conditioning?
|
An animal or person emits the same response to similar stimuli
|
|
|
What is generalization in classical conditioning?
|
The tendency for a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stim to elicit a response similar to the conditioned response
|
|
|
What is discrimination in operant conditioning?
|
A response is emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is reinforced and not in the presence of unreinforced stimuli
|
|
|
What is a discriminative stimulus?
|
A cue that a behavior will be reinforced
|
|
|
What is extinction in operant conditioning?
|
The reduction in an operant response when it is no longer followed by the reinforcer
|
|
|
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
|
The reduction in a response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus
|
|
|
What is spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning?
|
A temporary recover in the rate of responding
|
|
|
What is cognitive learning?
|
Involves mental processes such as attention and memory
Learning can occur through observation or imitation and such learning may not involve any external rewards or require a person to perform and observable behaviors |
|
|
What famous psychologist was severely against cognitive science?
|
B.F. Skinner ( whose main contribution to psych was his study of operant conditioning )
|
|
|
In the 1930's, who was in favor of cognitive learning, and created an experiment where rats would explore a maze first without a food reward, and observed that the mouse had created a cognitive map?
|
Edward Tolman
|
|
|
What is a cognitive map? Who came up with this idea?
|
Tolman
A mental representation in the brain of the layout of an environment and its features |
|
|
What is social cognitive learning?
|
Results from watching, imitating and modeling and does not require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive any observable reward
|
|
|
What is learning through watching? What kind of learning is it?
|
It is called observational learning, which if a form of cognitive learning
|
|
|
What is the learning-performance distinction?
|
Learning may occur but may not always be measured by, or immediately evident in performance
|
|
|
What does the social cognitive theory emphasize?
|
The importance of observation, imitation, and self-reward in the development and learning of social skills, personal interactions, and other behavior. (Unlike operant and classical conditioning, this says that it is not necessary to perform and observable behaviors or receive any external rewards to learn)
|
|
|
What are the four processes of cognitive learning?
|
1. Attention (must pay attention to what the model says or does)
2. Memory (observer must store or remember the information) 3. Imitation ( the observer must be able to use the info to guide their own actions) 4. Motivation ( they must have some reason or incentive to imitate the model's behavior ) |
|
|
What are the example steps for getting over a fear of spiders using cognitive learning?
|
1. Attention ( Looking at the model holding the spider )
2. Memory ( Store the image of seeing an calm person holding a spider ) 3. Imitation ( Imitating the relaxed person holding the spider ) 4. Motivation ( I just don't want to always be scared! ) |
|
|
What is the formal definition of insight?
|
A mental process marked by the sudden, unexpected solution to a problem ( "ah-ha!")
|
|
|
Who came up with the classic experiment of how a chimp tried to get a banana?
|
Kohler ( hung a banana from the ceiling and a box on the side. The chimp was clueless at first and then suddenly pushed the box )
|
|
|
What is the formal definition of memory?
|
The ability to retain info over time through three processes: encoding, storing, and retrieving.
NOT copies but representations of the world that vary in accuracy and are subject to error and bias |
|
|
What is encoding?
|
Forming, making mental representations of info so that it can be placed into our memories (Daniel encodes numbers by visualizing each as having a diff shape, color, and texture)
|
|
|
What is storing?
|
The process of placing encoded info into relatively permanent mental storage for later recall
|
|
|
What is retrieving in memory?
|
The process of getting or recalling info that has been placed into short-term or long-term storage
|
|
|
What is sensory memory?
|
An initial process the receives and holds environmental info in its raw form for a brief period of time (from an instant to several seconds )
|
|
|
What is short term memory? What is another name for it?
|
Working memory, refers to another process that can hold a limited amount of info (avg of seven items ) for only a short period of time (will disappear unless it is transferred into permanent storage / long term memory)
|
|
|
What is long-term memory?
|
The process of storing almost unlimited amounts of info over long periods of time.
|
|
|
What is the process between sensory memory to short-term and long-term memory?
|
Incoming info -> Sensory memory (if no attention is paid to the sensory memory, it is forgotten) -> Selective attention -> Short-term memory (if it is not encoded, it is forgotten ) -> Encoded for storage -> Long term memory
|
|
|
What is iconic memory?
|
A form of sensory memory that automatically holds visual info for about a quarter of a second or more; as soon as you shift your attention, the info disappears (when you blink, the image you last saw is there for a split second until you open your eyes again quickly)
|
|
|
What is echoic memory? What is an example of echoic memory in everyday life?
|
A form of sensory memory that holds auditory info for 1 or 2 seconds
Ex: I'm studying, Lauren: "When are you eating dinner?" Me: "What?" [echoic memory recalls what she said] "Oh, 6." |
|
|
What are the functions of sensory memory?
|
1. Prevents being overwhelmed (any sensory info you do not attend to will vanish in seconds)
2. Gives decision time (Is the incoming sensory info interesting or important? if it is, it goes to short term memory) 3. Provides stability, playback, and recognition ("seeing" while you're blinking, holding onto separate sounds so you can recognize words) |
|
|
What is maintenance rehearsal?
|
The practice of intentionally repeating or rehearsing info so that it remains longer in short-term memory
|
|
|
What is interference in terms of memory?
|
When new information enteres short-term memory and overwrites or pushes out info that is already there
|
|
|
What is chunking?
|
Combining separate items of information into a larger unit (chunk) and then remembering chunks of info rather than individual items
|
|
|
What are three important points to remember about short-term memory?
|
1 - Paying attention transferes info into short-term memory
2 - After a short time, info disappears unless its rehearsed 3 - Some info is eventually transferred from short-term into permanent storage |
|
|
What area of the brain is involved in short-term memory?
|
The front part of the brain, especially the prefrontal area
|
|
|
What are three FUNCTIONS of Short-term memory?
|
1 (Attending) allows us to selectively attend to info that is relevant and disregard everything else
2 (Rehearsing) can hold info for short period of time until you decide what to do with it 3 (Storing) Allows us to store or encode info into long-term memory |
|
|
What is the definition of encoding?
|
The process of transferring info from short-term to long-term memory by paying attention to it, repeating or rehearsing it, or forming new associations
|
|
|
What are the steps in the process in putting info into long-term memory?
|
1. Sensory memory
2. Attention 3. Short-term memory 4. Encoding 5. Long-term memory 6. Retrieving |
|
|
What is retrieving in terms of long term memory?
|
The process of selecting info from long-term memory and transferring it back into short-term memory
|
|
|
What are the chances information in long-term memory has to be retrieved?
|
All info in long-term memory has the potential to be retrieved, but how much you can retrieve depends on how it was encoded and the amount of interference from related info
|
|
|
How accurate are long-term memory?
|
The content and accuracy of long-term memories may undergo change and distortion across time. Much more accurate recalling positive events
|
|
|
What are the two separate memory systems we have?
|
Short and long term memory
|
|
|
What is the primacy effect?
|
Better recall or improvement in retention of info presented at the BEGINNING of a task
|
|
|
What is the recency effect?
|
Better recall or improvement in retention of info presented at the END of a task
|
|
|
What is the primacy-recency effect?
|
Better recall of info presented at the beginning and end of a task
|
|
|
Why are items presented in the middle of a list less likely to be remembered?
|
Because the info may no longer be retained in short-term memory and may not have been encoded in long-term memory
|
|
|
What are the two types of long-term memory?
|
Declarative and Procedural
|
|
|
What is declarative memory?
|
Involves memories for facts or events, such as scenes, stories, conversations, words, daily events, faces, etc/
We are aware of and can recall / retrieve these types of memories |
|
|
What are the two kinds of declarative memory?
|
Semantic and episodic
|
|
|
What is semantic memory?
|
A type of declarative memory that involves knowledge of facts, concepts, words, definitions, and language rules
Ex: what we learn in class / textbooks |
|
|
What is episodic memory?
|
A type of declarative memory that involves knowledge of specific events, personal exp or activities ( fav foods, songs, etc. )
Ex: Going on a vacation, our college experiences |
|
|
What is procedural memory? What is another name for it?
|
Nondeclarative memory; memories/ motor skills(learning a dance move), cognitive skills ( learning to read) and emotional behaviors learned through classical conditions (fear of spiders)
Cannot recall or retrieve procedural memories |
|
|
What is encoding? What are the two types of encoding?
|
Acquiring information of info from short-term into long-term memory without any effort and usually without any awareness
Automatic encoding and effortful encoding |
|
|
What is automatic encoding?
|
The transfer of info from short-term into long-term memory without any effort and usually without any awareness
Ex: Declarative memory (Semantic~ interesting facts, Episodic~ personal events, Procedural ~ Skills and habits) |
|
|
What is effortful encoding?
|
Involves the transfer of info from short-term into long-term memory either by working hard to repeat or rehearse the info or, especially, by making associations between new and old info
|
|
|
What are the two types of effortful encoding?
|
Maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal
|
|
|
What is maintenance rehearsal?
|
Simply repeating or rehearsing the info rather than forming any new associations
|
|
|
What is elaborative rehearsal?
|
Involves using effort to actively make meaningful associations between new info that you wish to remember and old / familiar info that is already stored in long-term memory
|
|
|
What are the levels of processing?
|
1. Shallow processing (Physical feature of the word)
2. Deeper processing (Sound properties of the word) 3. Deepest (Meaning of the word) |
|
|
What is the levels-of-processing theory?
|
Remembering depends on how info is being encoded (Encode by paying attention to only basic features -> info is encoded at a shallow level, poor recall. If you encode by making associations, info will be encoded at a deeper level -> better recall
|
|
|
What is repression?
|
The process by which the mind pushes a memory of some threatening or traumatic event deep into the unconscious. Once in the unconscious, the memory cannot be retrieved at will and may remain there until something releases it and the person remembers it
|
|
|
What is reactive attachment disorder?
|
A psychiatric illness characterized by serious problems in emotional attachments to others beginning before age 5. Symptoms may include resisting comfort, affection, being SUPERFICIALLY engaging /overly friendly with strangers, poor peer relationships, destructive behavior to themselves and to others
|
|
|
What is the nature-nurture question?
|
Asks how much nature and how much nurture contributes to a person's biological, emotional, social, cognitive, and personal development
I hate this book's love of lists. |
|
|
What do developmental psychologists study?
|
A person's biological, emotional, cognitive, personal, and social development across the lifespan
LISTS and LISTS |
|
|
What is the formal definition of a prodigy?
|
A child who shows a highly unusual talent, ability, or genius at a very early age and does not have mental retardation. (small percent of autistic children may show unusual artistic /math abilities and are called savants)
|
|
|
What is the prenatal period?
|
Extends from conception to birth and lasts about 266 days (9 months) Has 3 phases: germinal, embryonic, and fetal stage. During the period, a single cell will divide and grow to form 200 billion cells)
|
|
|
What is the germinal stage?
|
The first stage of prenatal development and refers to the two-week period following conception
|
|
|
What is ovulation?
|
The release of an ovum or egg cell from a woman's ovaries.
(sometimes two ova are released- two separate ova result in fraternal twins and are no more genetically alike that any two siblings, but if a single ovum splits into two parts AFTER fertilization, the result is identical twins) |
|
|
What happens if no sperm is present and there can be no fertilization?
|
The ovum, together with the lining of the uterus is sloughed off in a process called menstruation
|
|
|
What is conception or fertilization?
|
When one of the millions of sperm penetrates the ovum's outer membrane. After the ovum has been penetrated by a single sperm, its outer membrane changes and becomes impenetrable to the millions of remaining sperm
|
|
|
What is the ovum called after it is fertilized?
|
A zygote, smaller than a dot, a single cell which begins repeated division and after a week, consists of about 150 cells, and after 2 weeks, it attaches itself to the wall of the uterus
|
|
|
How many sperm are deposited in the vagina in one act of intercourse?
|
100 million - 500 million
|
|
|
What marks the beginning of the embryonic stage?
|
Once the zygote is implanted or attached to the wall of the uterus
|
|
|
What is the embryonic stage?
|
The second stage of the prenatal period and spans 2-8 weeks that follow conception
Cells divide and begin to differentiate into bone, muscle and body cells |
|
|
What are some events during the embryonic stage? (days)
|
21 - Beginnings of spinal cord / eyes
24 - cells differentiate to form what will become part of the herat 28 - tiny buds appear that will be the arms and legs 42 - features of the face take place |
|
|
When do most miscarriages take place?
|
During the embryonic stage because the embryo is very fragile, and all the basic organs are being formed
|
|
|
What is the fetal stage?
|
The third stage in prenatal development
Begins two months after conception and lasts until birth Develops vital organs : the lungs, and physical characteristics that are distinctively human |
|
|
What is the placenta?
|
An organ that connects the blood supply of the mother to that of the fetus
Acts like a filter, allowing oxygen and nutrients to pass through while keeping out some toxic or harmful substances (however some viruses can get in) |
|
|
What is a teratogen?
|
Any agent that can harm a developing fetus
May be a disease, a drug, or another environmental agent (such as chemicals) |
|
|
What is amniocentesis?
|
A medical test done between weeks 14-20 of pregnancy which involves inserting a long needle through the mother's abdominal muscles into the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus
Withdrawing and analyzing the fetal cells in the fluid, doctors can identify a number of genetic problems |
|
|
What are some causes of problems in the development of the fetus?
|
Harmful chems, drugs, viruses, genetic problems
Woman in her 40s higher risk for fetal genetic probs |
|
|
What is Down Syndrome?
|
Results from an extra 21st chromosome and causes abnormal physical traits and abnormal brain development, resulting in degrees of mental retardation
|
|
|
What dangers may come from a pregnant woman using caffeine?
|
Higher risk of underweight baby (more likely to have health probs as adults like high blood pressure and diabetes)
|
|
|
What is dangerous about cocaine, tobacco, marijuana, etc for a pregnant woman?
|
Low birth weight, poor feeding habits, risk for developing other psychological probs (low IQ, poor coping skills)
|
|
|
What dangers may come from a woman smoking / using nicotine during pregnancy?
|
Increases risk of low birth weight, preterm deliveries, possible physical problems, infant has higher risk for ADHD, sudden infant death syndrome, oral clefts, and respiratory infections
|
|
|
What may happen to children exposed to arge amounts of lead during pregnancy?
|
Low IQ scores, problems with brain development, Antisocial behavior in adulthood, possible criminal behavior, linked to a smaller brain region that is responsible for decision making and impulse control
|
|
|
What makes air pollutants dangerous during pregnancy?
|
Negative impact on children's cognitive development
Low birth weight, fetal growth deficiencies, delays in physical development |
|
|
What is fetal alcohol syndrome ( FAS)?
|
Results from mother drinking heavily during pregnancy, especially during the first 12 weeks
Physical changes ( short stature, flattened nose, short eye openings) Fewer brain connections within the brain structure Psychological and behavior problems (impulsive, hyperactive, deficits in info processing, drug abuse, poor socialization) |
|
|
What are some of a newborn's sensory abilities?
|
Faces ( prefers mother's face over stranger's)
Hearing, Touch, Smell / Taste , Depth Perception |
|
|
What explains why the weight of a baby's brain increases from 25% to 75% of its adult weight between birth and 2 years of age?
|
The heavy increase in neural connections is part of the reason
|
|
|
What is a visual cliff?
|
A glass tabletop with a checkerboard patter over part of its surface; the remaining surface consists of clear glass with a checkerboard pattern several feat below, creating the illusion of a cliff-like drop
|
|
|
What is motor development?
|
Refers to the stages of motor skills that all infants pass through as they acquire the muscular control necessary for making coordinated movements
|
|
|
What is the proximodistal principle?
|
Parts closer to the center of the infant's body develop before parts farther away (trunk before arms and legs)
|
|
|
What does the cephalocaudal principle say?
|
Parts of the body closer to the head develop before parts closer to the feet
(head -> trunk -> legs ) |
|
|
What is the process known as maturation?
|
Developmental changes that are genetically or biologically programmed rather than acquired through learning or life experiences (the development is heavily infulenced by maturation, but the timing can be partly slowed or sped up by experience / learning ( nurture )
|
|
|
What are developmental norms?
|
The average ages at which children perform various kinds of skills or exhibit abilities or behaviors
|
|
|
What are some examples of developmental norms? (on avg)
|
Sitting up alone - avg 5.5 months
Crawling - 10 months Walking alone - 12.1 months |
|
|
What is emotional development?
|
The influence and interaction of genetic factors, brain changes, cognitive factors, coping abilities, and cultural factors in the development of emotional behaviors, expressions, thoughts, and feelings
|
|
|
Why do differences show up so early in children's emotional makeup?
|
Temperment
|
|
|
What is the definition of temperament?
|
Relatively stable and long-lasting individual differences in mood and emotional behavior which emerge early in childhood bc these differences are largely influenced by genetic factors
|
|
|
When do infants usually develop distinct temperaments?
|
During the first 2 - 3 months early in life
|
|
|
What is the formal definition of attachment?
|
A close, fundamental emotional bond that develops between the infant and his / her parents or caregiver
|
|
|
What is the theory behind why attachment behavior evolved?
|
Psychologist Bowlby ( 1969 ) believed that attachment evolved because of its adaptive value, which was to give the infant a better chance of surviving because the parent was close by to provide care and protection
|
|
|
What are the three general questions that research on attachment was initiated by? Who initiated it?
|
Mary Ainsworth (1989) - How does attachment occur? Are there different kinds of attachment? What are the long-term effects of attachment?
|
|
|
According to the attachment theory, how does attachment occur?
|
Through a gradual process that begins shortly after birth and continues through early childhood.
|
|
|
What is the formal definition for separation anxiety?
|
An infant's distress whenever the infant's parents temporarily leave
|
|
|
How many different types of attachment are there? What were the two focused on in the book?
|
There are four, but the ones in the book were called secure ( 65% of infants ) and insecure ( 20% ) attachment
|
|
|
What is secure attachment?
|
Characteristic of infants who use their parent / caregiver as a safe home base from which they can wander off and explore their environments ( when the parents leave, they become upset but when they return, the are easily soothed )
|
|
|
What is insecure attachment?
|
Characteristic of infants who show ambivalence or resistance toward their parent (fussing around, clinging one minute, pushing away the next )
|
|
|
What affects an infant's sense of trust or attachment?
|
A mother's sensitivity, caring, and responsiveness to the infant's needs
|
|
|
What is the longitudinal method?
|
In research, the same group of individuals is studied repeeatedly at many different points in time
|
|
|
What is the cross-sectional method?
|
Several groups of different aged individuals are studied at the same time
|
|
|
What is cognitive development?
|
How a person perceives, thinks, and gains an understanding of his or her world through the interaction and influence of genetic and learned factors
|
|
|
Who had the greatest impact on the study of cognitive development?
|
Jean Piaget who studied how children solved problems in their natural settings. He believe that from early on, a child is like a tiny scientist
|
|
|
What is the definition of assimilation?
|
The process by which a child uses old methods or experiences to deal with new situations
|
|
|
What is the definition of accommodation?
|
The process by which a child changes old methods to deal with or adjust to new situationsW
|
|
|
What are Piaget's cognitive stages?
|
Four different stages - sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations - each of which is more advanced than the preceding stage bc it involves new reasoning and thinking abilities
|
|
|
What are the four stages in Piaget's cognitive stages? What did Piaget believe about them?
|
Sensorimotor
Preoperational Concrete Formal All people go through the same four stages, but may go through them at different rates |
|
|
What is the sensorimotor stage?
|
The first of the 4 stages. Infants interact with and learn about their environments by relating their sensory experiences to their motor actions
(ex: Dog on the table, covered) |
|
|
What is object permanence?
|
The understanding that objects or events continue to exist even if they can no longer be heard, touched, or seen (begins at 9 months)
|
|
|
What is the preoperational stage? When does it take place?
|
About 2 - 7 years old, second stage
Children learn to use symbols (words or mental images) to solve simple problems and to think or talk about things that are not present (glass of milk example) |
|
|
What is conservation?
|
The fact that even though the shape of some object or substance is changed, the total amount remains the same
|
|
|
What is egocentric thinking?
|
Seeing and thinking of the world only through your viewpoint and having difficulty appreciating someone else's viewpoint
|
|
|
What is the concrete operational stage?
|
7-12 years, 3rd stage
Children can perform logical mental operations on CONCRETE objects. (They now understand conservation, classification) |
|
|
What is the formal operations stage?
|
12 to adult, 4th stage
Adolescents / adults develop the ability to think about and solve abstract problsm in a logical manner |
|
|
What is the definition of imaginary audience? Personal fable?
|
1) Belief adolescents have that everyone is watching their actions
2) Adolescent's belief that he/she is invulnerable, unique, and special |
|
|
What are the three ideas that stand out about Piaget's cognitive stages?
|
(1) Children gradually and in a step-by-step fashion develop reasoning abilities through assimilation and accommodation
(2) Children are naturally curious and self-motivated to explore their worlds (3) Acquire diff kinds of thinking and reasoning abilities as they go through diff stages of cog dev |
|
|
What are some criticisms of Piaget's theory?
|
1-Four stages are not as rigid as he proposed
2- Does not explain how or why children can and cannot think at different ages / stages 3 - Children may fail PIagetian tasks not because they lacked the thinking abilities but bc they didn't understand the instructions |
|
|
What are two major changes in understanding and studying cognitive development?
|
1- Genetic factors. (How a child's genetic factors (nature) interact with with a child's environment (nurture)
2 - Brain development |
|
|
What is social development?
|
How a person develops a sense of self or self-identity, develops relationships with others, and develops the kind of social skills important in personal interactions
|
|
|
What are the three different theories of social development covered in the book?
|
Frued's Psychosexual Stages
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory |
|
|
What are the psychosexual stages?
|
5 different developmental periods - oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages- during which the individual seeks pleausre from diff areas of the body that are associated with sexual feelings.
Freud emphasized that a child's first 5 years were most important for development |
|
|
What are the stages 1 through 5 of the psychosexual stages?
|
1. Oral Stage
2. Anal Stage 3. Phallic Stage 4. Latency Stage 5. Genital Stage |
|
|
What is the oral stage?
|
Lasts the first 18 months of life
Time when infant's pleasure seeking is centered on the mount. Sucking, chewing, biting |
|
|
What is the anal stage?
|
Lasts from 18 months - 3 years
Infant's pleasure seeking centered on the anus and its functions of elimination Retention -> Take form of being very neat Elimination -> Being generous or messy |
|
|
What is the phallic stage?
|
age 3 - 6, please seeking centered on the genitals
Will compete with the parent of the same sex for the affections and pleasures of the parent of the opposite sex O_O Problems resolving this competition can result in Alex going through life trying to prove his toughness |
|
|
What is latency stage?
|
Lasts from 6 - puberty
Time when the child represses sexual thoughts and engages in nonsexual activities (developing social and intellectual skills) |
|
|
What is the genital stage?
|
Puberty - Adulthood
Time when the individual has renewed sexual desires that he/she seeks to fulfill through relationships with members of the opposite sex |
|
|
According to Frued, what does a child's future personality and social development depend on to a large extent?
|
What the child experiences during the first three of the five psychosexual stages ( first 5 years )
|
|
|
What are the psychosocial stages?
|
Eight developmental periods during which an individual's primary goal is to satisfy desires associated with social needs
Associates with : Trust, autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, and ego integrity |
|
|
What does Erikson believe about his stages?
|
An individual will encounter a particular psychosocial prob at each stage. If he solves the problem, he will develop positive social traits that will help him solve the next prob.
|
|
|
What is the FIRST stage of Erikson's Psychosocial stages?
|
Trust vs Mistrust
Birth - First Year Parents are responsive and sensitive to his needs -> child develops trust |
|
|
What is the SECOND stage of Erikson's Psychosocial stages?
|
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
1 - 3 yrs Parents encourage child to explore -> sense of independence / autonomy, otherwise may develop feeling that independence is bad and feel shame / doubt |
|
|
What is the THIRD stage of Erikson's Psychosocial stages?
|
Initiative vs Guilt
3 - 5 yrs Making plans, initiate new things etc |
|
|
What is the FOURTH stage of Erikson's Psychosocial stages?
|
5 - 12 yrs
Industry vs Inferiority Directing energy toward working and tasks -> Feeling of industry. Else, may develop feeling of inferiority |
|
|
What is the FIFTH stage of Erikson's Psychosocial stages?
|
Adolescence
Identity vs Role Confusion Can make the change from carefree to purposeful adults -> sense of confidence, positive identity, Unsuccessful -> role confusion, low self-esteem, socially withdrawn |
|
|
What are the strength and weaknesses of Erikson's and Freud's theories?
|
Strength: They explain the whole of social development, from infancy -> adulthood. Weakness:Many of their concepts are more descriptive than explanatory, difficult to verify
|
|
|
What is social cognitive theory?
|
Emphasizes the importance of learning through observation, imitation, and self-rewarding the development of social skills, interactions, and behaviors
Not necessary that you perform any observable behaviors or receive any external rewards to learn new social skills bc many of our behaviors are self-motivated |
|
|
What do studies on resilient children show?
|
1) Early traumatic events do not necessarily lead to later social-emotional problems
2) A loving, supportive caregiver can substitute for a disinterested parent 3) Children observe and imitate normal social behaviors modeled by caregivers |
|
|
What is the definition of gender identity?
|
The individual's subjective experience and feelings of being male or female
|
|
|
What are gender roles?
|
The traditional or stereotypical behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that parents, peers, and society, expect us to have because we are male of female
|
|
|
What theories explain how children acquire gender roles?
|
Social role theory and cognitive developmental theory
|
|
|
What is the social role theory?
|
Emphasizes the influence of social and cognitive processes on how we interpret, organize, and use info. Applied to gender roles, says that parents, teachers, friends, etc. respond to and reward diff behaviors in boys than in girls, resulting in boys learning a diff gender role than girls
|
|
|
What is the cognitive development theory?
|
As children develop mental skills and interact with their environments, they learn one set of rules for male behaviors and another for female behaviors
|
|
|
What are gender schemas?
|
Sets of information and rules organized around how either a male or a female should think and behave
|
|
|
What are a couple main difference between males and females mentally?
|
Males tend to be more aggressive, females tend to be more effectively wired for processing and remembering emotional experiences
|
|
|
How can you determine whether something is a positive / negative reinforcer / punishment?
|
Positve: adding something
Negative : taking something away Reinforce : Behavior increases Punishment: Behavior decreases Pos Rein: Give cookies for good grades Pos Punishment: Spank for bad grades |
|
|
What is cognitive psychology?
|
What's going on inside the black box - all the complex processes in the brain.
|
|
|
What is a sufficient condition?
|
Not NECESSARY but being one of the things that will automatically put you into a category.
ex: To be put in the "dead" category, some of the sufficient conditions are : heart stops beating, run over by car many times, exploded, etc. |
|
|
What is a necessary condition?
|
A property the object MUST have in order to fit in the category. To be a bachelor, must be a SINGLE MALE
|
|
|
Who argued against categorizing objects using necessary of sufficient conditions?
|
Wittgenstein who used the example of a game to prove that you can't classify everything in such a way.
Believed things were categorized in a fuzzier way with "family resemblances", "typical" properties |
|
|
Why don't we see a 3-year-old nephew as a bachelor?
|
Because he has the NECESSARY conditions, but doesn't have the typical conditions that we map to it
|
|
|
What screwed up the behavioralist theories?
|
Language. How would language be reinforced? How is it learned? How would you explain utterances and would words be reinforced? phrases?
How do you get rewarded for a sentence you've never said before? |
|
|
Why can't behaviorists explain language?
|
It is innate, just like how we have the innate disposition to see, to see faces, we have the innate structure to speak
|
|
|
What is syntax and lexicon?
|
Rules of combination
Word meanings We are born with universal grammar |
|
|
What is evidence for the Nativism of Language (Khomsky)?
|
1. Underdeterminism of Ev(Creole,phrase/sentence structure)
2. Vocabulary learning 3. Critical Period 4. Williams Syndrome(severe mental retardation, but language remains) |
|
|
How can you determine whether something is a positive / negative reinforcer / punishment?
|
Positve: adding something
Negative : taking something away Reinforce : Behavior increases Punishment: Behavior decreases Pos Rein: Give cookies for good grades Pos Punishment: Spank for bad grades |
|
|
What is cognitive psychology?
|
What's going on inside the black box - all the complex processes in the brain.
|
|
|
What is a sufficient condition?
|
Not NECESSARY but being one of the things that will automatically put you into a category.
ex: To be put in the "dead" category, some of the sufficient conditions are : heart stops beating, run over by car many times, exploded, etc. |
|
|
What is a necessary condition?
|
A property the object MUST have in order to fit in the category. To be a bachelor, must be a SINGLE MALE
|
|
|
Who argued against categorizing objects using necessary of sufficient conditions?
|
Wittgenstein who used the example of a game to prove that you can't classify everything in such a way.
Believed things were categorized in a fuzzier way with "family resemblances", "typical" properties |
|
|
What explains accents?
|
Infants initially have all phonemes, but over time, they only use and detect the ones they hear in the beginning of life
-once mappings are in place, much harder to learn language as an adupt |
|
|
What is the definition of ontogeny?
|
Development of the individual
|
|
|
Who started evolutionary psychology?
|
Darwin, with the Origin of Species in 1861
Talks about artificial selection (breeding) and natural selection |
|
|
What is social Darwinism?
|
'is' vs 'ought', -> the "ought" people thought people were poor because they weren't as good
|
|
|
What is the Encepehelization Quotient (EQ)?
|
Brain Size ratio toBody size
1 = Avg size 2 = Twice avg Humans: 7.4 EQ |
|
|
How can you determine whether something is a positive / negative reinforcer / punishment?
|
Positve: adding something
Negative : taking something away Reinforce : Behavior increases Punishment: Behavior decreases Pos Rein: Give cookies for good grades Pos Punishment: Spank for bad grades |
|
|
What is cognitive psychology?
|
What's going on inside the black box - all the complex processes in the brain.
|
|
|
What is a sufficient condition?
|
Not NECESSARY but being one of the things that will automatically put you into a category.
ex: To be put in the "dead" category, some of the sufficient conditions are : heart stops beating, run over by car many times, exploded, etc. |
|
|
What is a necessary condition?
|
A property the object MUST have in order to fit in the category. To be a bachelor, must be a SINGLE MALE
|
|
|
Who argued against categorizing objects using necessary of sufficient conditions?
|
Wittgenstein who used the example of a game to prove that you can't classify everything in such a way.
Believed things were categorized in a fuzzier way with "family resemblances", "typical" properties |
|
|
What is the Corticalization Quotient? (CQ)
|
Cortex compared to brain size
|
|
|
What is the FQ?
|
Frontal Cortex over Entire Cortex
|
|
|
Why do we have a longer helpless period?
|
Altricial = having a lot of kids, short lifespan, small FQ/EQ vs Prococial = work hard to help them survive, long gestation, large EQ/CQ, developed social behavior
Humans are somewhere in the middle Neoteny - Our entire developmental process is 'slowed down' |
|
|
What are some disadvantages to our big brains?
|
Longer helpless period
Excess cognition - we're slow! Brain uses about 1/5 of our energy Bulk - human child birth. period. |
|
|
What are some theories towards our "braininess" and why it didn't go away with evolution?
|
1) Human camping trick: we need them to be that big, that is all
2) Runaway sexual selection: females prefer bigger brains -> have kids who prefer it -> etc. |
|
|
What is a philanderer?
|
A guy who is attractive to other females, but does not settle down
|
|
|
Why are guys generally more sexually jealous?
|
A female's optimal strategy is to mate with a philanderer and have a kid with good genes, and then have a care-giving male take care of it. The care-giving male's genes would go away so he has to be more jealous to prevent this from happening
|
