Psych Exam

Front 1

aborization

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the growth and formation of new dendrites

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acetylcholine

Back 2

a neurotransmitter that controls muscle movement and plays a role in mental processes such as learning, memory, attention, sleeping, and dreaming

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action potential

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the impulse of positive charge that runs down an axon

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adoption studies

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research into heriditary influence in which adopted people are compared to their biological and adoptive parents

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adrenal glands

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structures that sit atop each kidney; they release hormones important in stress, emotions, regulation of heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar regulation

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alleles

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pairs or alternate forms of a gene

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all-or-none principle

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the idea that once the threshold has been crossed, an action potential either fired or it does not; there is no half-way

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amygdala

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a small, almond shaped structure located directly in front of the hippocampus; has connections with many important brain regions and is important for processing emotional information, especially that related to fear

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aphasia

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deficit in the ability to speak or comprehend language

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autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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all the nerves of the peripheral nervous system that serve involuntary systems of the body, such as the internal organs and glands

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axon

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a long projection that extends from a neuron's soma; it transmits electrical impulses toward the adjacent neuron and stimulates the release of neurotransmitters

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basal ganglia

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a collection of structures surrounding the thalamus involved in voluntary motor control

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behavioral genetics

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the scientific study of the role of heredity in behavior

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Broca's area

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an area in the left frontal lobe responsible for the ability to produce speech

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catecholamines

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a class of chemicals released from the adrenal glands that function as hormones and as neurotransmitters; they control ANS activation and include the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine

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central nervous system (CNS)

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the part of the nervous system that comprises the brain and spinal cord

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cerebellum

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a hindbrain structure involved in body movement, balance, coordination, fine-tuning motor skills, and cognitive activities such as learning and language

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cerebral cortex

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the thin outer layer of the cerebrum, in which much of human thought, planning, perception, and conciousness takes place

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cerebrum

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each of the large halves of the brain that are covered with convolutions, or folds

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cingulate gyrus

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a belt-like structure around the corpus callosum that plays an important role in attention and cognitive control

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contralaterality

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the fact that one side of the brain controls movement on the opposite side

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corpus callosum

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the nerve fibers that connect the two hemisphered of the brain

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cortisol

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a hormone released by the adrenal glands; responsible for maintaining the activation of bodily systems during prolonged stress

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dendrites

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fingerlike projections from a neuron's soma that receive incoming messages from other neurons

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dopamine

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a neurotransmitter released in response to behaviors that feel good or are rewarding to the person or animal; also involved in voluntary motor control

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electroencephaolography (EEG)

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a method for measuring brain activity in which the electrical activity of the brain is recorded from electrodes placed on a person's scalp

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endocrine system

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bodily system of glands that secrete and regulate hormones

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enzymatic degradation

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a way of removing excess neurotransmitter from the synapse, in which enzymes specific for that neurotransmitter bind with the neurotransmitter and destroy it

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epigenesis

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change in the way genes are turned on or off without a change in the sequence of DNA

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epinephrine

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also knowns as adrenaline,a neurotransmitter that arouses bodily systems (such as increasing heart rate)

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event-related potential (ERP)

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a special technique that extracts electrical activity from raw EEG data data to measure cognitive processes

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functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI

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a brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce very finely detailed images of the activity of areas of the brain and other soft tissues

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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

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a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain that tells post-synaptic neurons not to fire; it slows CNS activity and is necessary to regulate and control neural activity

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gene-by-environment interaction research

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a method of studying heritability by comparing genetic markers that allows researchers to assess how genetic differences interact with environment to produce certain behaviors in some people but not in others

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genes

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small segments of DNA that contain information for producing proteins

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genome

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all genetic info in DNA

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flial cells

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the cells of the central nervous system that provide structural support promote efficient communication between neurons, and serve as scavengers, removing cellular debris

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glutamate

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a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain that increases the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fire; important in learning, memory, neural processing, and brain development

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graded potentials

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small changes in membrane potential that by themselves are insufficient to trigger an action potential

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hypothalamus

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a limbic structure; the master regulator of almost all major drives, and motives we have, such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sexual behavior; also controls the pituitary gland

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insula

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a small structure inside the cerebrum that plays an important role in the perception of bodily sensations, emotional states, empathy, and addictive behavior

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interneurons

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neurons that communicate only with other neurons

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ions

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chemically charges particles that predominate in bodily fluids; found both inside and outside cells

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medulla

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a hindbrain structure that extends directly from the spinal cord; regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

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mirror neurons

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nerve cells that are active when we observe others making an action as well as when we are performing the same action

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monogenic transmission

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the hereditary passing on of traits determined by a single gene

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motor neurons

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nerve cells that carry commands for movement from the brain to the muscles of the body

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myelin sheath

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the fatty substance wrapped around some axons, which insulates the axon, making the nerve impulse travel more efficiently

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neurogenesis

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the development of new neurons

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neurons

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the cells that process and transmit information in the nervous system

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neuroplasticity

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the brain's ability to adopt new functions, reorganize itself, or make new neural connections throughout life as a function of experience

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neurotransmitters

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chemicals that transmit information between neurons, across the synapses

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norepinephrine

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a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in the sympathetic nervous system, energizing bodily systems, and increasing mental arousal and alertness

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parasympathetic nervous system

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the branch of the autonomic nervous system that usually relaxes or returns the body to a less active, restful state

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peripheral nervous system

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the part of the nervous system that comprises all the nerve cells in the body outside of the central nervous system

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pituitary gland

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the master gland of the body; among the numerous hormones it secretes are hormones that control the release of hormone from glands elsewhere in the body

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polygenic transmission

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the process by which many genes interact to create a single characteristic

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pons

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a hindbrain structure that serves as a bridge between lower brain regions and higher midbrain and forebrain activity

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positron emission tomography (PET)

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brain imaging technique that measures blod flow to areas in the active brain; indicates which brain areas are active during certain situations

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refractory period

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the span of time, after an action potential has been generates, when the neuron is returning to its resting state and the neuron cannot generate an action potential

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resting potential

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the difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the axon when the neuron is at rest

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reticular formation

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a network of nerve fibers that runs up through both the hindbrain and the midbrain; it is crucial to waking up and falling asleep

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reuptake

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a way of removing excess neurotransmitter from the synaps, in which excess neurotransmitter is returned to the sending or pre-synaptic, neuron for storage in vesicles and future use

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sensory neurons

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neurons that receive incoming sensory information from sense organs

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serotonin

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a neurotransmitter with wide ranging effects; involved in dreaming and controlling emotional states, especially anger, anxiety, and depression

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soma

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the cell body of the neuron

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somatic nervous system

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nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system that transmit sensory info to the CNS and those that transmit info from the CNS to the skeletal muscles

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sympathetic nervous system

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the branch of the ANS that activates bodily systems in times of emergency

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synapse

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the junction between an axon and the adjacent neuron, where info is transmitted from one neuron to another

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synaptic vesicles

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tiny sacs on the terminal buttons that contain neurotransmitters

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synaptogenesis

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the formation of entirely new synapses or connections with other neurons

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terminal button

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little knobs at the end of the axon that contain tiny sacs of neurotransmitters

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thalamus

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a forebrain structure that receives inputs from the ears, eyes, skin, or taste buds, and relays sensory information to the part of the cerebral cortex most involved in processing that specific kind of sensory information

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wernicke's area

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an area deep in the left temporal lobe responsible for the ability to speak in meaningful sentences and to comprehend the meaning of speech

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absent-mindedness

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a form of forgetfulness that results from inattention

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amnesia

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memory loss due to injury or disease in the brain

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anterograde amnesia

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the inability to remember events and experiences that occur after an injury or the onset of a disease

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automatic processing

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encoding that happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task

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blocking

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the inability to retrieve some information once it is stored

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chunking

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the process of breaking down a list of to-be-remembered items into a smaller set of meaningful units

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consistency bias

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selective recall of past events to fit our current beliefs

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consolidation

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the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory

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effortful processing

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when we carefully attend to and put conscious effort into remembering information

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encoding

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the process of attending to, taking in, and processing new info by the brain

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episodic memory

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memory fot the experiences we have had

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explicit memory

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the conscious recall of facts and events; also known as declarative memory

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false memories

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memories for events that never happened, but that were suggested by someone or something

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forgetting curve

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a graphic depicting of how recall steadily declines over time

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hierarchies

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a way of organizing related information form the most specific feature they have in common to the most general

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implicit memory

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knowledge based on previous experience, such as skills that we perform automatically once we have mastered them; resides conscious awareness

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interference

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when other information competes with the information we are trying to recall

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levels of processing

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the idea that the more deeply people encode information, the better they will recall it

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long-term potentiation

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results when synapse of one neuron repeatedly fired and excited another neuron; there is a permanent change in the receiving neuron, the excitatory neuron, or both, which strengthens the synaptic connection

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misattribution

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a problem of commission, which occurs when we wrongly believe the memory came from one source when in fact it came form another

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mnemonic

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a device that helps people remember info

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persistence

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the repeated recall of pleasant or unpleasant experiences even when we actively try to forget them

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priming

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when recall is improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli

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proactive interference

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when previously learned info interferes with the learning of new information

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procedural memory

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implicit knowledge for almost any behavior or physical skill we have learned

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recovered memory

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a memory from a real event that was encoded and stored, but not retrieved for a long period of time; it is retrieved after some later event brings it suddenly to consciousness

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rehearsal

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the process of practicing material repeatedly

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repression

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a form of blocking in which retrieval of memories that have been encoded and stored is actively inhibited

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retrieval

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the recovery of information stored in memory

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retroactive interference

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when new experiences or information cause people to forget previously learned experiences or information

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retrograde amnesia

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an inability to recall events or experiences that happened before the onset of the disease or injury

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schemas

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ways of knowing that we develop from our experiences with particular objects or events

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semantic memory

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memory for facts and general knowledge, such as what we learn in school

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sensory memory

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holds info in its original sensory form for a very brief period od time, usually about a half a second or less

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serial-position effect

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the tendency to have better recall for items in a list, depending on their position in the list

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storage

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he retention of memory over time; is the third stage of long-term memory formation

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suggestibility

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when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions by someone else or some other source

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three-stage model of memory

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classifies memories cased on duration as sensory, short term, and long-term memories

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transience

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refers to the fleeting nature of some memories

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working memory

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the part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand

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behavior modification

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the application of operant conditioning principles to change behavior

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biological constraint model

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view on learning proposing that some behaviors are inherently more likely to be learned than others

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classical conditioning

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form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which one has an automatic, inborn response

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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a previously neutral input that an organism learns to associate with the UCS

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conditioned response (CR)

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a behavior that an organism learns to perform when presented with the CS

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conditioned taste aversion

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the learned avoidance of a particular taste or food

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conditioning

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a form of associative learning in which behaviors are triggered by associations with events in the environment

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs

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enactive learning

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learning by doing

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ethology

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a scientific study of animal behavior

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extinction

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the weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response, which occurs when the UCS is no longer paired with the CS.

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fixed ratio schedule

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pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which reinforcement follows a set number of responses.

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Fixed interval schedule

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a pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are always reinforced after a set period of time has passed.

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imprinting

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the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after birth

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instinctive drift

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learned behavior that shifts towards instinctive, unlearned behavior tendencies

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intermittent reinforcement

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reinforcement of a behavior but not after every response

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latent learning

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learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated until later, when reinforcement occurs

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law of effect

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principle that the consequences of a behavior increase (or decrease) the likelihood that the behavior would be repeated

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learning

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enduring changes in behavior that occur with experience

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modeling

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the imitation of behaviors performed by others

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negative reinforcement

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removal of a stimulus after a behavior to increase the frequency od that behavior. An example is buckling your seat belt to stop the buzzer in the car.

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negative punishment

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the removal of a stimulus to decrease behavior

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observational learning

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learning by watching the behavior of others

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operant conditioning

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the process of changing behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior

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positive reinforcement

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the presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur

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positive punishment

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the addition of a stimulus that may decrease behavior

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primary reinforcers

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innate, unlearned reinforcers that satisfy biological needs (such as food, water, or sex).

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punishment

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stimulus, presented after a behavior, that decreases the frequency of the behavior.

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reinforcer

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environmental stimulus that increases the frequency of a behavior

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schedules of reinforcement

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patterns of reinforcement distinguished by whether reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses or after a certain amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.

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secondary (or conditioned) reinforcers

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reinforcers that are learned by association, usually via classical conditioning.

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shaping

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the reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior

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skinner box

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simple chamber used for operant conditioning of small animals; includes a food dispenser and a response lever to trigger food delivery

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social learning theory

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a description of the kind of learning that occurs when we model or imitate the behavior of another

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spontaneous recovery

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the sudden reappearance of an extinguished response

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stimulus generalization

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extension of the association UCS and CS to include a broad array of similar stimuli.

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stimulus discrimination

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restriction of a CR (such as salivation) to the exact CS to which it was conditioned

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unconditioned response (UCR)

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the automatic, inborn response to a stimulus

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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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the environmental input that always produces the same unlearned response

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variable ratio (VR) schedule

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a pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes

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variable interval (VI) schedule

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pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed

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availability heuristic

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a device we use to make decisions based on the ease with which estimates come to mind or how available they are to our awareness

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babbling

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sounds made as a result of an infant's experimentation with a complex range of phonemes. starts around 5-6 months

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child-directed speech

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changes in adult speech patterns when speaking to young children or infants; characterized by higher pitch, changes in voice volume, use of simpler sentences, emphasis of the here and now, and use of emotion to communicate their messages.

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cognition

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mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and storing knowledge

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cognitive psychology

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the science of how people think, learn, remember and perceive

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concept hierarchy

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arrangement of related concepts in a particular way, with some being general and others specific.

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concept

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a mental grouping of objects, events, or people

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confirmation bias

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the tendency to selectively attend to information that supports one’s general beliefs while ignoring information or evidence that contradicts one’s beliefs

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cooing

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the first sounds humans make other than crying, consisting almost exclusively of vowels; occurs during first 6 months of life.

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grammar

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the entire set of rules for combining symbols and sounds to speak and write a particular language.

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heuristics

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mental shortcuts; methods for making complex and uncertain decisions and judgments.

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idioms

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expressions unique to a particular language; usually their meaning cannot be determined by decoding the individual meanings of the words.

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inductive reasoning

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reasoning to general conclusions from specific evidence

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language acquisition device (LAD)

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an innate, biologically based capacity to acquire language, proposed by Noam Chomsky as part of his nativist view of language

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linguistic determinism hypothesis

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the proposition that our language determines our way of thinking and our perceptions of the world; the view taken by Sapir and Whorf

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mental representation

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a structure in our mind—such as an idea or image—that stands for something else, such as the external object or thing sensed in the past or future, not the present

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metacognitive thinking

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process that includes the ability to think and then to reflect on one’s own thinking.

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nativist view of language

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the idea that we discover language rather than learn it; that language development is inborn

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one-word utterances

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single words, such as “mama,” “dada,” “more,” or “no!”; occurs around 12 months of age.

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protolanguage

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very rudimentary language, also known as pre-language

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prototypes

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the best-fitting examples of a category

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representativeness heuristic

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a strategy we use to estimate the probability of one event based on how typical it is of another event.

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sentence phase

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stage when children begin speaking in fully grammatical sentences; usually age 2 ½ to 3

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syntax

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the rules for arranging words and symbols to form sentences or parts of sentences in a particular language

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two-word utterances

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phrases children put together, starting around 18 months, such as “my ball,” “mo wawa,” or “go way” ([go away)].

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construct validity

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the degree to which a test measures the concept it claims to measure, such as intelligence.

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convergent thinking problems

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problems that have known solutions and require analytic thinking and the use of learned strategies and knowledge to come up with the correct answer.

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cultural test bias hypothesis

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the notion that group differences in IQ scores are caused by different cultural and educational backgrounds, not by real differences in intelligence

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divergent thinking problems

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problems that have no known solutions and that require thinking of new approaches (thinking outside of the box) to solve them.

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down syndrome

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a disorder that results from a condition known as trisomy-21, in which a person has three rather than two number 21 chromosomes. Like retardation in general, it may be characterized by a degree of disability, ranging from mild to profound

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Eureka insight or insight solutions

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sudden solutions that come to mind in a flash

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fixation

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the inability to break out of a particular mind-set in order to think about a problem from a fresh perspective

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flexibility of thought

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characteristic of creativity: ability to come up with many different categories of ideas and think of other responses besides the obvious one

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functional fixedness

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mind-set in which one is blind to unusual uses of common everyday things or procedures

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ideational fluency

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characteristic of creative thought that involves the ability to produce many ideas

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mental set

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a tendency to continue to use problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past, even if better solutions are available

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multiple-factor theory of intelligence

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idea that intelligence consists of distinct dimensions and is not just a single factor

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predictive validity

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the degree to which intelligence test scores are positively related to real-world outcomes, such as school achievement or job success, and thus have predictive value.

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reliability

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consistency of a measurement, such as an intelligence test

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savant syndrome

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a very rare condition in which people with serious mental handicaps show isolated areas of ability or brilliance

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successful intelligence

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according to Robert Sternberg, the “use of an integrated set of abilities needed to attain success in life, however an individual defines it, within his or her sociocultural context.”

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test bias

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characteristic of a test that determines whether it predicts outcomes equally well for different groups

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test fairness

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characteristic of a test that reflects values, philosophical differences, and the ways in which test results are applied to different groups

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validity

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he degree to which a test accurately measures what it purports to measure, such as intelligence, and not something else; and the degree to which it predicts real-world outcomes.

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animistic thinking

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belief that inanimate objects are alive

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anxious-avoidant

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attachment style characterized by infants who stay calm when their primary caregiver leaves and who ignore and avoid her when she returns

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anxious-resistant attachment

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attachment style characterized by infants who are ambivalent when separated and reunited

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concrete operational stage

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Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, which spans ages 6–11, during which the child can perform mental operations—such as reversing—on real objects or events

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conservation

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recognition that when some properties (such as shape) of an object change, other properties (such as volume) remain constant

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conventional level

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the second level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, during which the person values caring, trust, and relationships as well as the social order and lawfulness

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critical period

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specific period in development when individuals are most receptive to a particular kind of input from the environment (such as visual stimulation and language)

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dementia

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a loss of mental function, in which many cognitive processes are impaired, such as the ability to remember, reason, solve problems, make decisions, and use language

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egocentrism

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viewing the world from one’s own perspective and not being capable of seeing things from another person’s perspective

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emotional competence

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the ability to control emotions and know when it is appropriate to express certain emotions

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formal operational stage

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Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development, from age 11 or 12 on through adulthood, when formal logic is possible

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generativity

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a term Erik Erikson used to describe the process in adulthood of creating new ideas, products, or people

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menarche

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the first menstrual period

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neural migration

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the movement of neurons from one part of the fetal brain to their more permanent destination; occurs during months 3–5 of the fetal stage

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object permanence

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the ability to realize that objects still exist when they are not being sensed

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preconventional level

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the first level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, focusing on avoiding punishment or maximizing rewards

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pruning

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the degradation of synapses and dying off of neurons that are not strengthened by experience

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secure attachment

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attachment style characterized by infants who will gradually explore new situations when the caregiver leaves, and they initiate contact when the caregiver returns after separation

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sensorimotor stage

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Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development (ages 0–2), when infants learn about the world by using their senses and by moving their bodies

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separation anxiety

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the distress reaction shown by babies when they are separated from their primary caregiver (typically shown at around 9 months of age)

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social referencing

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the ability to make use of social and emotional information from another person—especially a caregiver—in an uncertain situation

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spermarche

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first ejaculation

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temperament

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the biologically based tendency to behave in particular ways from very early in life

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teratogens

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substances that can disrupt normal prenatal development and cause lifelong deficits

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theory of mind

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ideas and knowledge about how other people’s minds work

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agoraphobia

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an intense anxiety and panic about being in places from which escape might be difficult or in which help might not be available should a panic attack occur

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Axis I Disorders

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disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV (DSM-IV) consisting of the major clinical syndromes that cause significant impairment, such as the anxiety disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, and the psychotic disorders. These disorders tend to develop after adolescence, and are perceived by the person suffering from them as not consistent with their view of themselves and therefore cause guilt.

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Axis II Disorders

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the more long-standing personality disorders as well as mental retardation in the DSM-IV. They are viewed as consistent with and part of the person’s personality, and therefore do not cause much guilt

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bipolar disorder

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when substantial mood fluctuations occur, which cycle between very low (depressive) and very high (manic) episodes

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comorbidity

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when two or more disorders co-occur

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compulsion

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a repetitive behavior performed in response to uncontrollable urges or according to a ritualistic set of rules

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deviant

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“different from the norm” or different from what most people do

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diathesis-stress model

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biological predispositions (diathesis) plus stress or abusive environments are usually needed to produce psychological disorders

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distress

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behavior that leads to real discomfort or anguish, either in the person directly or in others

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dysfunctional

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behavior that interferes with everyday functioning and occasionally can be a risk to oneself or others

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dysthymia

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a milder form of depression

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generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

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pervasive and excessive state of anxiety lasting at least six months

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impulse control disorder

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behavior that the person cannot control and feels an intense, repetitive desire to perform

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major depressive disorder

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often referred to as depression for short, it is a disorder characterized by pervasive low mood, lack of motivation, low energy, and feelings of worthlessness and guilt that last for at least two consecutive weeks

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manic episodes

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typically involve increased energy, sleeplessness, euphoria, irritability, delusions of grandeur, increased sex drive, and “racing” thoughts

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obsession

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an unwanted thought, word, phrase, or image that persistently and repeatedly comes into a person’s mind and causes distress

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obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

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an anxiety disorder that is manifested in both thought and behavior

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panic attacks

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associated with perceptions of threat and can occur for a number of reasons: fear of danger, inability to escape, embarrassment, or specific objects

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panic disorder

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involves panic attacks and the persistent worry, embarrassment, and concern about having more attacks

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phobia

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a persistent and unreasonable fear of a particular object, situation, or activity

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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

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a type of anxiety disorder that is triggered by exposure to a catastrophic or horrifying event that posed serious harm or threat to the person and consists of three main symptoms: 1) re-experiencing the trauma; 2) avoidance of thoughts, feelings, and activities associated with the trauma; emotional numbing and distancing from loved ones; and 3) increased arousal (irritability, difficulty sleeping, exaggerated startle response).

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social phobia or social anxiety disorder

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a pronounced fear of humiliation in the presence of others; marked by severe self-consciousness about appearance or behavior or both

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specific phobias

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anxiety about particular objects or situations, such as spiders (arachnophobia), heights, flying, enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), doctors and dentists, or snakes.

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syndromes

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clusters of related symptoms

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atypical antipsychotics

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newer antipsychotic drugs, which do not create tardive dyskinesia. Examples include Clozapine (Clozaril), olanzapine (Zyprexa), and risperidone (Risperdal)

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barbiturates

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another class of drug for anxiety; has sedative, calming effects. These drugs can be addictive and carry risk of overdose

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behavior therapies

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therapies that apply the principles of classical and operant conditioning to treat psychological disorders

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benzodiazepines

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(Valium, Librium) a class of drugs prescribed for anxiety; has calming effects and can be addictive, but less dangerous than the barbiturates

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bupropione

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(trade name Wellbutrin) another widely used antidepressant that is chemically unrelated to the tricyclics, MAO inhibitors, and SSRIs. It inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine

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catharsis

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the process of releasing intense, often unconscious, emotions in a therapeutic setting

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client-centered therapy

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a form of humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist must show genuine liking and empathy for the client, regardless of what he or she has said or done

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cognitive therapy

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any type of psychotherapy that works to restructure irrational thought patterns

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cognitive-behavioral therapy

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an approach that combines techniques for restructuring irrational thoughts with operant and classical conditioning techniques to shape desirable behaviors

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defense mechanisms

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processes that operate unconsciously and involve defending against anxiety and threats to the ego

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dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)

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a program developed for the treatment of borderline personality disorder, which integrates elements of CBT with exercises aimed at developing mindfulness without meditation

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electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

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involves passing an electrical current through a person’s brain in order to induce a seizure; currently in limited use for treatment of severe depression

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flooding

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an extreme form of in vivo exposure in which the client experiences extreme exposure to the phobic object

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free association

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a psychotherapeutic technique in which the client recounts a dream and then takes one image or idea and says whatever comes to mind, regardless of how threatening, disgusting, or troubling it may be. This process is repeated until the client has made associations with all the recalled dream images

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group therapy

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therapeutic settings in which several people who share a common problem all meet regularly with a therapist to help themselves and one another; the therapist acts as a facilitator

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integrative therapy

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also called “eclectic,” this is approach to treatment in which the therapist is not loyal to any particular orientation or treatment, but rather draws on use those that seem most appropriate given the situation

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lithium

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a salt that is prescribed for its ability to stabilize the mania associated with bipolar disorder

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mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT)

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an approach that combines elements of CBT with mindfulness meditation to help people with depression learn to not cling to negative thought patterns

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monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors

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one of the first class of pharmaceuticals used to treat depression; these reduce the action of the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which breaks down monoamine neurotransmitters (including norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin) in the brain

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phenothiazines

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the first class of drugs used to treat schizophrenia; helps diminish hallucinations, confusion, agitation, and paranoia; creates adverse side effects, including tardive dyskinesia

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prefrontal lobotomy

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a form of psychosurgery, in which the connections between the prefrontal lobes and the lower portion of the brain are severed

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psychodynamic psychotherapy

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therapy aimed at uncovering unconscious motives that underlie psychological problems

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psychotherapy

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the use of psychological techniques to modify maladaptive behaviors or thought patterns, or both, and to help patients develop insight into their own behavior

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repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation

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physicians expose particular brain structures to bursts of high-intensity magnetic fields instead of electricity; usually reserved for people with severe depression

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repression

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a defense mechanism, which involves forcing threatening feelings, ideas, or motives into the unconscious

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selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

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drugs that make more serotonin available in the synapse. Prozac (fluoxetine), Zoloft (sertraline), Paxil (paroxetine), and Celexa (citalopram) are a few of the more widely used SSRIs. Used primarily for depression and some anxiety disorders

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systematic desensitization

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a behavioral therapy technique, often used for phobias, in which the therapist pairs relaxation with gradual exposure to a phobic object, generating a hierarchy of increasing contact with the feared object, ranging from mild to extreme

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tardive dyskinesia

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a side effect from the extended use of traditional antipsychotics; consists of repetitive, involuntary movements of jaw, tongue, face, and mouth (such as grimacing and lip-smacking) and body tremors

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token economies

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a behavioral technique in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with a token, such as a small chip or fake coin, which can then be exchanged for privileges

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transference

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occurs in psychotherapy when the client reacts to a person in a present relationship as though that person were someone from the client’s past

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Tricyclic antidepressants

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drugs used for treating depression. Examples include imipramine and amitriptyline, marketed under the trade names Elavil and Anafranil. They are also used in chronic pain management, to treat ADHD, and also as a treatment for bedwetting

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achievement motivation

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a desire to do things well and overcome difficulties and obstacles

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action tendencies

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particular behavioral impulses that accompany certain emotions

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affective traits

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stable predispositions toward certain types of emotional responses; they are enduring aspects of our personalities that set the threshold for the occurrence of particular emotional states

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antecedent event

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part of the emotion process; this is a situation that may lead to an emotional response

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appraisal

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the evaluation of a situation with respect to how relevant it is to one’s own welfare; it drives the process by which emotions are elicited

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basic emotions

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a set of emotions that are common to all humans; includes anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, and surprise

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broaden and build model

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Fredrickson’s model for positive emotions, which posits that they widen our cognitive perspective and help us acquire useful life skills

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culturally relative

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the idea that behavior varies across cultures and can only be understood within the social laws, rules, or norms of the culture in which they occur

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display rules

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learned norms or rules, often taught very early, about when it is appropriate to show certain expressions of emotion and to whom one should show them

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drives

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the perceived states of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in some need

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emotion regulation

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the cognitive and behavioral efforts people use to modify their emotions

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emotional response

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includes the physiological, behavioral/expressive, and subjective changes that occur when emotions are generated

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emotions

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brief, multifaceted changes to experience and physiology that result from a response to a meaningful situation in the person’s environment

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expressive-suppression

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an example of a response-focused strategy for regulating emotion involving the deliberate attempt to inhibit the outward manifestation of an emotion.

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facial action coding system (FACS)

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a widely used method for measuring all observable muscular movements that are possible and observable in the human face

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glucose

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a simple sugar in the blood that provides energy for cells throughout the body, including the brain

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homeostasis

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the process by which all organisms work to maintain physiological equilibrium or balance around an optimal set point

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James-Lange theory of emotion

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says that our perception of the physiological changes that accompany emotions create the subjective emotional experience

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Life satisfaction

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the overall evaluation we have of our lives; it is an aspect of subjective well-being

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neuro-cultural theory of emotion

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Ekman’s theory that accounts for the fact that certain aspects of emotion, such as the facial expressions and physiological changes, are similar in all humans, whereas others, such as how people appraise situations and regulate their emotional expressions in front of others, vary from one culture to another.

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reappraisal

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an antecedent-focused emotion regulation strategy, in which one reevaluates how one has viewed an event so that a different emotion results

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self-actualization

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the full realization of one’s potentials and abilities in life

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self-conscious emotions

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occur as a function of how well we live up to our expectations, the expectations of others, or the rules set by society

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set point

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the ideal fixed setting of a particular physiological system, such as internal body temperature

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subjective experience of emotion

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the changes in the quality of our conscious experience that occur during emotional responses

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Yerkes-Dodson law

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the idea that both low arousal and high arousal lead to poor performance, whereas moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance, depicted visually as a graph between performance (y-axis) and arousal (x-axis) that has an inverted-U shape

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acquired immunity

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endocrine and cellular processes that recognize specific antigens and then reproduce specialized cells or circulating proteins to fight that antigen

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adrenal-medullary system

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one of the major neuroendocrine pathways stimulated when we experience a stressful event; the hypothalamus sends instructions to the brain stem to activate sympathetic neurons

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cortisol

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the stress hormone; the primary glucocorticoid produced by the body; it ensures that the body gets enough fuel

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emotional disclosure

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way of coping with stress that involves unburdening, through writing or talking about the situation

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emotion-focused coping

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way of dealing with stress that aims to regulate the experience of distress

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exhaustion stage

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the part of the general adaptation syndrome when all resources for fighting the threat have been depleted and illness is more likely

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general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

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as defined by Hans Selye, a generalized, nonspecific set of changes in the body, composed of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

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glucocorticoids

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hormones responsible for maintaining the activation of physiological systems during emergencies

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health behavior approach

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explanation for illness or health that focuses on the behaviors people engage in, such as diet, exercise, or substance abuse

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immunosuppression

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condition in which susceptibility to disease is increased because the body’s ability to fight invading pathogens or its ability to kill potentially cancerous cells, or both, is reduced

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inflammation

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a process in which tissues are restored following injury

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neuroendocrine system

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the hormonal systems involved in emotions and stress

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norepinephrin

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a neurotransmitter that activates the sympathetic response to stress, increasing heart rate, rate of respiration, and blood pressure in support of rapid action

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problem-focused coping

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way of dealing with stress that aims to change the situation that is creating stress

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Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

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the science of how psychological factors lead to immune suppression that might make a person more susceptible to certain diseases

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psychosomatic theory

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the idea that emotional factors can lead to the occurrence or worsening of illness

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resistance stage

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the part of the general adaptation syndrome that is an extended effort by the body to deal with a threat

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secondary appraisal

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assessment of the resources available to cope with stress

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stress

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condition that occurs when a situation that elicits a strong emotional response overwhelms a person’s perceived ability to meet the demands of that situation

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Type A Behavior Pattern

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a way of responding to challenge or stress, characterized by hostility, impatience, competitiveness, and time-urgency; predictive of heart disease and mortality.