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76 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Scientific Method
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Observe
Detect Regularities in Behavior Generate a hypothesis Observe to test hypothesis |
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Operational Definition
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Specifies the operations or procedures used to produce or measure something
It is a way to give a tangible idea a numerical value ex: how many times in a one hour show that one person threatens or injures another person |
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Reactivity
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Behavior changes as a result of the observation process
ex: Principal watching over a classroom |
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External Validity
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Extent to which results are representative to real life
ex: to test, study children at multiple day-care centers instead of one to see if results are constant |
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Naturalistic Observation
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Records only naturally occurring behavior in real-life situations
ex: monitoring humans and animals in real life, not in a laboratory Reduces reactivity and improves external validity (no awareness of being observed, and representation of real life) |
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Case Study
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Focus on a single case, usually an individual
Usually gather a lot of historical information about background behavior, making it easy to form hypotheses Concerns about external validity (is that one person representative to the world?) |
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Experimental Research
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Researcher manipulates environment and observes effects on behavior
ex: Expose one set of children to a violent show and another set to a nonviolent show and observe behavior Cause and Effect |
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Correlation Research
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Used to determine whether two measures vary together
ex: How a known test score will affect a future job success or how much the number of hours worked affects the number of tips received Ranges from -1 to 1 Closer to 1 in either direction = a stronger relationship (pos. or neg.) and more likely to make an accurate prediction |
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Difference between Experimental and Correlation Research
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Correlation: Predict and select behavior
Experimental: Determining why behavior occurs Correlation: Statistical correlation between two or more variables Experimental: Manipulating independent variables to see effects on dependent variable |
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Survey Method
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Used to gather limited amounts of information about many people, usually by a questionnaire
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Convenience Sample
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Ease of availability for a survey participant
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Representative Sample
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Survey participant's answers closely resemble population
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Random Sample
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Guarantees that everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected as a sample for a survey
Best for ensuring a representative sample |
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Cross-Cultural Sample
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Participants in survey from at least two different cultures
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Pros and Cons of Surveys
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Pros: gather lots of observations to help determine the characteristics of a large group
Cons: Unless random sampling, finding a representative group is difficult |
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Dependent Variable
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The behavior that is measure or observed
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Independent Variable
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Aspect of the environment that is manipulated or changed
Must have two conditions ex: Watching a violent show vs. a nonviolent show |
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Population
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The group the people the researcher wants to learn about
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Experimental Bias
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Choosing information not based off of the results, but off of selective analysis (what looks interesting)
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Intelligence Test
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Measure abilities or consistency of individuals to act in a certain way
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Aptitude Test
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Measure the potential for success in a given profession or area of study
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Achievement Test
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Measure of a person's current level of knowledge or competence in a subject
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Placebo
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Inactive substance that resembles an experimental substance
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Confounding Variable
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Uncontrolled variables that change systematically with the independent variables
Any other variable aside from the independent variable that alters results (dependent variable) |
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Internal Validity
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All confounding variables are controlled
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Single-Blind Study
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The experimental participants do not know if they have been assigned experimental conditions or controlled conditions
Overall expectations of study are equal in both groups so behavior is not altered |
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Double-Blind Study
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Neither participants or researchers are aware of who has been assigned to the experimental or control groups
Controls both subject and experimenter expectancies Reduce bias effects |
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Ethical Considerations in Research
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Informed Consent -- people should be fully informed about any significant factors that could affect their willingness to participate (any risks or procedures involved)
Debriefing -- informing participants about the purpose of the experiment at the conclusion Confidentiality -- personal information obtained should not be revealed without participant's permission |
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Sensory Neuron
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Cells that carry messages toward the spinal cord and brain
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Interneuron
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Connect and transfer information from one neuron to another; make no direct contact with outside world
Connect sensory and motor neurons |
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Motor Neuron
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Carry information away from the central nervous system (spinal cord, brain) to the muscles and glands that directly produce behavior
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Glial Cells
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Fill in space between neurons
Remove waste, or help neurons communicate efficiently "Support Cells" |
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Reflexes
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Controlled by spinal cord, not the brain
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Parts of a neuron
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Dendrites
Soma Axon Terminal Buttons |
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Dendrite
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Extend out from a neuron to receive information from other neurons
1000s of branches to receive information from many sources |
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Axon
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Cell's transmitter
Sends electrical signal onto the next cell (transmits information to the dendrites or neighboring cell bodies) |
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Terminal Button
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At end of axons
Contain chemicals important to neural transmission |
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Soma
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Main body of the cell
Metabolic Center Stores genetic material Information is processed here |
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Neurotransmitters
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Released when action potential reaches the end of the axon
Released small small sacs in the terminal buttons Activate chemicals in the postsynaptic membrane (cell membrane of the next neuron) Depending on characteristics of postsynaptic membrane, they will transfer either excitatory or inhibitory messages |
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Information flow within a neuron
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dendrites, soma, axon, terminal buttons
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Synapse
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Chemicals flow into the synapse from the terminal buttons
Small gap between terminal buttons of a neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another neuron |
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Action Potential
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Electrical signal that travels down the axon
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Inhibitory Message
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Negative message
Electrical potential of contacted cell becomes more negative, and action potential decreases |
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All-or-none principle
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Action potentials fashion
Will not begin until sufficient excitatory input (positive message) has been received If electrical potential inside the cell has become sufficiently less negative, action potential will be initiated |
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Resting Potential
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Exists between inside and outside of cell
Created by electrically charged particles (inside and outside of cell) Maintained by sodium-potassium pump |
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Example Neurotransmitters
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Acetylcholine -- involved in triggering muscles to contract
Dopamine -- involved with pleasure Serotonin -- involved in sleep and dreaming/ regulates moods Gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA) -- involved in regulating anxiety |
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Dopamine
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Neurotransmitter that leads to inhibitory effects
Decreased levels have been linked to Parkinson's Disease Increased levels have been linked to schizophrenia Involved with pleasure |
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Agonist
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Mimic the action of neurotransmitters
ex: nicotine mimics acetylcholine |
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Antagonist
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Block action of neurotransmitters
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Central Nervous System
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Brain and Spinal Cord
Decisions made and messages are then communicated to the rest of the body by nerves |
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Peripheral Nervous System
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Axons between spinal cord and rest of body
Muscles are moved, internal organs are regulated, and sensory input is directed toward the brain |
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Controls involuntary, automatic actions (heart rate, digestion, blood pressure)
Part of peripheral nervous system |
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Somatic Nervous System
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Peripheral nerves that communicate with skin and muscle to initiate movement
Transmit sensory information to the brain |
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Calms the body down after it has prepared for an emergency
Slows heart rate, lowers blood pressure, helps increase body's supply of stored energy |
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EEG
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Electroencephalograph
Monitors gross electrical activity of the brain |
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CT
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Computerized Tomography
3D picture of brain Use of highly focused X-rays to see detailed maps of the living brain |
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PET
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Positron Emission Tomography
Measure how radioactive substances are absorbed in the brain (measures the active brain and how it responds to the radioactive substance when doing certain activities) |
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MRI
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Does not require ingesting chemicals (like PET) Uses magnetic fields and radio-wave pulses to construct detailed picture of brain Proven to be excellent tools in spotting brain damage, tumors, etc. |
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Hindbrain
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Main structure is life support
Substructures: medulla and pons regulate heart rate, reflexes, and blood pressure; reticular formation regulates sleep and arousal |
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Cerebellum
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Part of hindbrain
Involved in coordination of complex motor skills |
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Hypothalamus
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Part of forebrain
Motivates behaviors (eating, drinking, sexual behavior) |
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Amygdala
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Part of limbic system
Small, almond-shaped piece of brain linked to many motivational and emotional behaviors (fear, aggression, defensive actions) Damage to amygdala causes difficulty in recognizing emotions in facial expressions |
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Hippocampus
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Part of limbic system
Important for memory formation, especially for memories of personal events (remember nothing new, only things in the past -- anterogade amnesia |
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Phineas Gage
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Iron rod struck through frontal lobe of his skull in railroad accident
Survived, but changed his personality completely |
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Cerebral Cortex
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Higher mental processes (thoughts, sense of self, ability to reason and solve problems)
divided into left and right hemisphere, each controlling the sensory and motor functions for the other side Each hemisphere divided into frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes |
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Temporal Lobes
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Located on side of brain, part of cerebral cortex
Main processing areas for hearing and complex aspects of vision Left temporal lobe contains areas for language processing/ comprehension (Wernicke's Area) Damage to this may cause a person to be able to repeat a sentence perfectly, but not understand a word of it |
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Parietal Lobes
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Directly in front of occipital lobes in cerebral cortex hemispheres
Contains somatosensory cortex through which we experience touch, temperature, and pain |
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Occipital Lobes
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Rear of the head in cerebral cortex hemispheres
Visual processing Areas both inside and outside of the lobe for shape, color, and motor vision |
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Frontal Lobes
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Top front of brain in cerebral cortex hemispheres
Planning, decision making, memory, personality Contain primary motor cortex, controlling voluntary muscle movements |
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Limbic System
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Made up of amygdala, which controls motivational and emotional behaviors, and hippocampus, which controls memory
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Broca's Area
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Damage causes difficulty producing spoken language, although you can understand it
Located in frontal lobe |
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Wernicke's Area
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Damage causes difficulty understanding spoken language, although you can speak it
Located in left temporal lobe |
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Corpus Callosum
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Connects the two hemispheres of cerebral cortex, allowing information to pass from one side to the other
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Right Brain Hemispheres
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Specialize in spatial tasks and emotion
Ex. fitting together a puzzle, recognizing vocal emotional expressions |
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Left Brain Hemispheres
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Specialize in verbal tasks
Ex. reading and writing |
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Endocrine System
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Uses bloodstream, rather than neurons, to send chemical messages that regulate growth and other internal functions
Release hormones Relatively slow compared to nervous system, but coordinates with it |
