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142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Definition: Learning
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any relative permanent change in behavior that occurs because of experience
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Definition: Conditioning
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a kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and responses.
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Definition: Classical Conditioning
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Pavlov, The organism learns to associate two stimuli, one produces a response that originally was only produced by the other
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Definition: Unconditioned Stimulus
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Elecits the unconditioned response (food)
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Definition: Unconditioned response
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Response which is automatically produced (salivate)
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Definition: Conditioned response
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Response elicited by the conditioned stimulus (salivate to bell)
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Definition: Extinction
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repeat the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus over time and the conditioned response will disappear.
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Definition: Spontaneous Recovery
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after a response has been extinguised it may spontaneously reappear after the passage of time with exposure to the conditioned stimulus
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Definition: Higher order conditioning
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Pairing a neutral stimulus with the conditioned stimulus will create another conditioned stimulus, although a weaker conditioned response. More likely to show extinction (food with bell, bell with light).
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Definition: stimulus generalization
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after a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response, other, similar stimuli may produce the same reaction.
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Definition: Stimulus generalization
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After a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response, other, similar stimuli may produce the same reaction.
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Definition: stimulus discrimination
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One learns to realize the difference between similar stimuli.
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Garcia Effect
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Taste aversions seems to be particularly sensitive to learning. May be evolutionarily determined.
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Definition: Operant conditioning/instrumental learning
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Behavior is dependent on its consequences,
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BF Skinner
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All behavior is explained by looking outside the individual. People and animals tend to repeat behaviors which have positive consequences; decrease behaviors which have negative consequences
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Three types of consequences
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Neutral, reinforcement and punishment
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Definition: Neutral consequence
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not more or less likely to see behavior patterns change
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Definition: Reinforcement
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Anything which will make a response more likely to occur
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Definition: Punishment
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anything which will make a response less likely to occur
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Definition: primary reinforcers
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satisfy biological needs: food water and sex
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Definition: Secondary reinforcers
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satisfy through association with primary reinforcers: money, praise, grades.
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Definition: Punishment
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are inherently unpleasant and decrease the likelihood of a response
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Definition: Positive punishment
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something unpleasant occurs (spanked, mouth washed out with soap).
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Definition: Negative punishment
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something pleasant is removed (no TV, no dessert)
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Definition: Escape learning
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acquiring a response that decreases or ends an aversive stimulation
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Definition: Avoidance Learning
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acquiring a response that prevents some aversive stimuli from occurring.
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Continuous Learning Schedules
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reward/punishment occurs each time the behavior occurs
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Intermittent/Partial learning schedules
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reward/punishment occurs when a response occurs only some of the time.
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Definition: Ratio Schedules
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deliver reinforcement after a certain fixed number of responses
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Definition: Fixed ratio schedule
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reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (every 4x)
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Definition: Variable ratio schedules
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reinforcement after some average number of responses (on average 7).
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Definition: Interval schedules
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reinforcement after a certain amount of time has passed and the desired behavior has occurred.
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Definition: Fixed interval
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reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed since the past reinforcer (5 minutes).
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Definition: Variable interval
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reinforcement occurs if a variable amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer (on average 5 min, could be 3 or 7).
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Definition: Observation learning
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belief there is a higher level cognitive process to how we learn, impacts attitudes, beliefs and expectations
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Banduras four key components to observation learning
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Attention: be aware of anothers behavior and consequences
Retention: have the capacity to store/retrieve what you have observed Reproduction: behaviorally iitate what has been stored in memory MotivatioN: determined by a belief that the behavior will bring about a desired response. |
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Causes of retadation
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Organic: over 100 single genetic traits can result in mental retardation
Environmental: teratogens (fetal alcohol syndrome; poor nutrition, disease) |
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Definition: Giftedness
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Generally believed to be those with an IQ of >130 (Upper 2-3% of the population)
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Characteristics of Giftedness
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Precocious; master things earlier
Teachers may not identify them correctly Gifted vs “Profoundly Gifted” distinction May have exceptional potential in visual/performing arts, leadership traits or empathy Acceleration not current recommendation |
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Definition: •Spearman: Two factor theory of intelligence
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G factor or general abilities: comprehension spatial skills, verbal abilities
S factor or specific abilities: numerical reasoning, rote memory skills |
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Cattell: two types of g factor of intelligence
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oFluid intelligence: innate skills not dependent on the environment; more biologically based
oCrystallized intelligence: academic learning, ability to use information learned in problem solving; related to environment and experience |
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Sternberg’s three facets of intelligence
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oPractical intelligence: dealng with problems encountered in every day life
oAnalytical intelligence: abstract reasoning, good test taking skills Creative intelligence: generating new ideas |
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Definition: Creative intelligence
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Generate new ideas
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Gardner’s multiple intelligences
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Logical mathematical
Linguistic Musical Spatial Bodily kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist |
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Emotional intelligence
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o Ability to motivate oneself
o Control impulses o Persist in the face of frustration Regulate moods to keep distress from overwhelming the ability to think |
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Definition:Motivation
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vigor and persistence of goal directed behavior, helps move us towards goals.
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Definition: Evolutionary Theory
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motivation plays a significant role in adaptation; social need to affiliate, share resources, provide protection, procreation.
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Definition: Hypothalamus
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primary structure of the brain which signals hunger and satiation (fullness)
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Social Factors which Impact eating Behaviors
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Environmental influences on eating behaviors
Complex and multiply determined Eat more in groups Expectation and memory of meals Palatability Social interactions |
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Psychological Factors which Impact eating Behaviors
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Thinking about food and what it means
Learned food habits/preferences Memories associated with food Belief and feeling regarding body image Cultural variations: robust=higher class Food as a substitute for love, sex |
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health related concerns associated with being overweight or obese
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Coronary heart disease
Type 2 diabetes Cancers (endometrial, breast, and colon) Hypertension (high blood pressure) Stroke Sleep apnea and respiratory problems |
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Three main reasons for Obesity rates in the US
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Increased high fat easily accessible junk food
Increased portion size Increased sedentary lifestyle |
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Causes of anorexia
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Anxiety regarding maturation
Difficulty expressing aggression in high achieving families; often bright and capable Difficult to treat because patients don’t recognize it as a problem Males increasing “obligatory runner”. |
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Anorexia age/fatality rate
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Peak age 14-18 > in Females
6% fatality rate |
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Buliema frequency,reprocussions
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Long term health issues: ulcers, hernias, hair loss, dental damage, electrolyte imbalances
1-3% of adolescent girls More treatable because recognize problem Often in normal weight range |
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Kinsey Survey
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Identified sexual behaviors/preferences
Self report data-bias issues Limited validity Important beginning |
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Sexual Cycles
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Excitement
Plateau Orgasm Resolution |
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Gender differences in human sexuality
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Males think about sex more and willing to engage in sexual activity with more casual partners
Males place more emphasis on youth and attractiveness Females place more emphasis on intelligence and ability to provide and protect Biological vs Environmental influences on sexuality: Sex in the City Phenomenon |
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Hill proposed 4 functions we strive to affiliate
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1. To obtain positive stimulation in our lives
2. To receive emotional support 3. To gain attention 4. To permit social comparison |
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Definition: Emotion
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cognitive, physiological and behavioral components
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Cognitive Emotion
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Subjective conscious experience, includes an “appraisal” or evaluation of the situation.
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Physiological Emotion
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Bodily arousal accompanies feeling states
Fight or flight |
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Why re polygraph tests not always accurate?
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Sensitive to those high on anxiety measures
Less likely to identify those who lie without accompanying discomfort. |
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Definition: Flashbulb memories
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dramatic positive or negative memory
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Memories for traumatic events are more...
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memories for traumatic events are more vivid than ordinary events.
only the main aspects of trauma are remembered |
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3 ways to measure memory
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Recall-ability to retrieve information which has been learned earlier
Recognition-ability to identify previously encountered information Relearning- effort is saved in having learned something before |
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Information processing model of memory
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memory and mind are life a computer
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Definition: encoding
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how to put information in, retain, store and retrieve it.
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Different levels of processing
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Different levels of processing impact encoding.
Shallow- Structural encoding Intermediate-Phonemic encoding Deep- Semantic encoding |
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Three box model of memory
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Sensory-->Short term--> Long term
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Characteristics of Sensory memory
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retains 1-2 seconds, holding bin
~ 1/2 second in visual subsystem ~longer in auditory system --> decides if it is worth processing |
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Characteristics of short term memory
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limited infor for 20/30 seconds
-houses our working memory -pattern recognition: copares to information already in our long term memory, goes to LTM or is lost |
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Number of items we can hold in our short term memory
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5-9 is magic number, book says 4 (this is more likely accurate)
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Characteristics of long term memory
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longer storage for minutes or decades
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Definition: procedural memory
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knowing "how"
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Definition: declaritive memory
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knowing "that"
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Definition: semantic memories
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facts, rules, concepts
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Definition: Episodic memories
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Experienced events, personal reflections
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Definition: prospective memory
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remembering to perform actions in the future
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Definition: Retrospective memory
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remember events from the past or previously learned information
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Definition: Primacy effect
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memory of beginning pieces of list
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Definition: Recency effect
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Memory of end pieces of list
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Things that increase memory
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Frequency-numerous mention increases memory
Distinctiveness: increases liklihood Chunking: increases memory |
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Definition: maintanence rehearsal
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retain in short term memory
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Definition: elaborative rehearsal
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know it, review, practice, give meanings
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Method of Loci:
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Match up existing visual images with concepts
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Dual Coding theory
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Memory is enhanced by using both semantic and visual codes since either can be used to recall
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Chase and Simon research with chess players
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expert knowledge helps memory of relevant but not irrelevant information
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How we forget
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Ineffective encoding- we don't remember it in the first place
Decay theories: memories fade with time Most recent version of memories are saved |
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Egocentric Cooperative Group
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To enable members to select and implement a long-range activity which requires group interaction to complete.
To enable members to identify and meet the needs of themselves and others (e.g. safety, esteem). *Encourages clients to function independently, serves as a role model. |
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Definition: motivated forgetting
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Painful memories blocked from consciousness (Freud)
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Definition: Cue dependent forgetting
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forgot because you haven't figured out what you need to help remember (retrieval cues)
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Definition: retrograde amnesia
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defecit in recalling events that happened before the onset of amnesia
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Definition: anterograde amnesia
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range of cognitive impairment including memory loss following an accident
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Definition: post traumatic amnesia
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range of cognitive impairment including memory loss following an accident. can be substantial but often decreases to the level of the event surrounding the accident
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Definition: childhood amnesia
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the inability to remember things from first years of life (under 5)
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Definition: aphasia
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no language
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Definition: apraxia
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no coordinated body movements
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Definition: agnosia
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inability to recognize familiar objects
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Causes of alzheimers
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formation of plaques or tangles in areas of the brain controlling memory or vital cognitive functioning
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Diagnosis of alzheimers
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brain imaging
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Benjamin Whorf views on language
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linguistic relativity, one's language determines one's thoughts
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Structure of language
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Phonemes: smallest unit of which sound can be distinguished
Morphemes: smallest units of meaning in a language (ex slow--> slowLY) |
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Definition:semantics
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the study of meaning of words/combinations/sentences
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Definition:syntax
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the structure of a language, underlying rules of order/function
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Gleason study
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kids apply rules they know for some words to other words. "swimmed"
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Definition: overregularizations
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grammatical rules in correctly generalized to exception cases
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Language Acquisition Device
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Humans possess an inborn language mechanism, hard wired to sort 20-80 phonemes, lose by 12 months
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Definition: surface structure
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diction- particular words used
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Definition: Deep structure
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notion of nouns, verbs, commands
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Definition: expressive language
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the ability to produce language
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Definition: receptive language
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the ability to comprehend, process and integrate the meaning of language
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Types of nonverbal communication
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vocal intonation- stress, pitch, volume
body language- crossed arms, sitting up gestures- physical distance, facial expressions, touch |
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Definition: bilingualism
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some question about language acquisition but often see similar cumulative vocabulary
most research does not show cognitive limiations |
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Learning theory and language
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learning is based on modeling, imitation, exposure and reinforcement
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Flaws with the learning theory
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Children acquire language with ease, not with variations, adult speech is often sloppy and children still acquire basic model, childrens speech is not a mechanical playback
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Interactionist theory of language development
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both biology and experience make important contributions to language development
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Definition: thought
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an extension of perception and memory
mental representations are formed, recalled and manipulated |
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Definition: concepts and categories
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objects are classified on the basis of their properties
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Definition: concepts
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a mental representation of a category
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Definition: categorization
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recognizing an object as a member of a group
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Definition: prototypes
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we rate things based on their similarity to models or prototypes which represent the main characteristic of a group
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Rosch theory on categorization
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concepts are defined by a prototype or the most typical member of a class
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Definition: reasoning
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the process by which we generate and evaluate arguments
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Definition: algorithms
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a methodical, step by step procedure for trying all possible alternatives to solve a problem
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Definition: inductive reasoning
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we reason from specific observations to general propositions
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Definition: deductive reasoning
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draw conclusions from a set of assumptions; the conclusion is true if the premise is true.
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Definition: syllogism
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a form of deductive reasoning consists of 2 premises and a conclusion
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Definition: problem solving
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transform one situation into another to meet a goal. active efforts to acheive the goal.
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Greeno's three types of problems
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-problems of inducing structure, relationships between numbers, words, symbols
-porblems of arrangement, arrange the parts of a problem to satisfy a criteron -problems of transformation, need to carry out a sequence in order to achieve a specific goal |
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Definition: framing
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how decisions or problem solving is posed may change the decision making task
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Definition: mental set
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tendency to stick to solutions which have worked in the past
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Definition:functional fixedness
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our tendency to rely on a function for an object and ignore other possible uses
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Definition: confirmation bias
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we seek to confirm what we already believe
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Definition: distraction be irrelevant information
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people often get side tracked and it detracts from effective problem solving
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Definition: unnecessary constraints
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we put restrictions on our problem solving which don't exist
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Definition: insight
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the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on that and eror
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Definition: decision making
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evaluating alternatives and making choices among them
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Definition: compensatory decision models
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do not allow some attributes to compensate for others
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Definition:heuristics
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shortcuts that guide us in decision making probabilities
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Definition: availability heuristic
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decision making based on the fact that things which are easily recalled seem to be typical/common
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Definition: representative heuristic
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matching an object to a concept or a category without processing how likely the fit may be
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