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179 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
how we respond to the environment
classical conditioning
learning is a ______ change in behavior due to experience
relatively permanent
learning is the process of
acquiring_ knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values, through our experience, research, or teaching, that causes a change of behavior that is measurable
learning involves changing our behavior...
in response to experience
how we respond to the environment
classical conditioning
how we act in the environment
operant conditioning
how we observe the environment
observational learning
behaviorists insist
that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors, and not concern itself with mental processes or events.
Methodological behaviorists believe:
that only observable behaviors are worthy of research, and they study only events that they can measure and observe.
Radical behaviors believe that internal states are caused by:
external events or genetics.
the ultimate cause of behavior is:
is observable events, not internal states.
Jacques Loeb argued that
all animal and most human behavior could be explained with stimulus-response psychology.
Flinching from a blow and shading one’s eyes from strong light are examples of:
stimulus-response behaviors.
determinism
an assumption that all behavior has a cause and effect.
founder of classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
a buzzer is a _____ stimulus
neutral
won an award for studies on digestion
Ivan Pavlov
Pavlov's experiment helped us understand:
The research helped us understand and use the power of positive association.
It paved the way for us to understand the role that negative associations can play in our phobias and irrational fears.
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without any _prior_ conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur).
- It is when animals react to stimulus without training
unconditioned response
an unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning.
- It is an action that the unconditioned stimulus automatically brings out. You react_
conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.
- It is a stimulus that we react to only after we learned about it
conditioned response
a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning.
- You learned how to react to the stimulus
the 3 processes of classical conditioning:
acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery.
acquisition
The process that establishes or strengthens a conditioned response is called acquisition. This means that when an organism learns something new, it has been "acquired".
extinction
To extinguish a classically conditioned response, the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. This is a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR tendency.
Extinction is the elimination of a learned behavior by discontinuing the reinforcer of that behavior.
spontaneous recovery
sometimes there will be a reappearance of a response that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the CS. It is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere. The temporary return of an extinguished response is called spontaneous recovery.
stimulus generalization
a response to a specific stimulus becomes associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli.
stimulus discrimination
learning to respond to one stimulus and not another. Thus, an organisms becomes conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli.
who created the learning curve?
thorndike
what is the learning curve?
a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over successive trials of an experiment, to record how quickly cats learned to escape from a maze.
who used puzzle boxes?
thorndike
explain how the puzzle box is used?
He would place an animal in the puzzle box, and if it performed the correct response (such as pulling a rope, pressing a lever, or stepping on a platform), the door would swing open and the animal would be rewarded with some food located just outside the cage. Soon it would take the animal just a few seconds to earn its reward.
cats would learn more quickly at the puzzle box if:
if the response selected produced an immediate escape.
thorndike observed that the escape from the box acted as:
a reinforcement for the behavior that led to the escape.
what is a reinforcement?
an event that increases the future probability of the most recent response.
The type of learning that Thorndike studies has come to be known as
operant or instrumental conditioning.
who is the founder of the law of effect?
thorndike
the law of effect:
This states that behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences will be strengthened, and will be more likely to occur in the future.
Conversely, behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be weakened, and will be less likely to be repeated in the future.
Thorndike’s law of effect is another way of describing what modern psychologists now call
operant conditioning.
who is considered the most radical behaviorist?
skinner
who is the founder of operant conditioning?
skinner
Operant Conditioning involves increasing a behavior by
following it with a reward, or decreasing a behavior by following it with _punishment_.
operant conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which
voluntary behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced. It is weakened if it is punished (or not reinforced)
what is the skinner box?
The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water.
Instead of observing behavior in the natural world...
why?
he attempted to study behavior in a closed, controlled unit. This prevents any factors not under study from interfering with the study.
what is shaping?
using reward or reinforcement to produce progressive changes in behavior in a desired direction.
shaping is a:
Shaping is a reinforcement technique that is used to teach animals or people behaviors that they have never performed before.
what is a reinforcement?
is an event that increases the probability that a response will be repeated. A reinforcement can be either the presentation of a desirable item such as money or food, or the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, such as verbal nagging or physical pain.
a positive reinforcement:
The presentation of an event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of an event
punishment is:
event that decreases the probability of a response. A punishment can be the removal of a desirable condition such as driving privileges or the presentation of an unpleasant condition such as physical pain.
does punishment tend to be effective or ineffective?
ineffective except for temporarily suppressing undesirable behavior.
punishment is referred to as:
passive avoidance learning because in response to punishment an individual learns to avoid the outcome by being passive.
Chaining Behavior is an
operant conditioning method where behaviors are reinforced by opportunities to engage in the next behavior
reinforcer
is something that increases the likelihood of the preceding response.
Ex: saccharin, a sweet chemical. Tobacco, alcohol are all reinforcers.
primary reinforcers:
unconditioned reinforcers like food and water. Unconditioned reinforcers meet primary, biological needs and are found to be reinforcing for almost everyone. Food and drink are unconditioned reinforcers.
secondary reinforcer:
are conditioned reinforcers like money, because it can be exchanged for food and water which are necessary reinforcers
conditioned reinforcers are: effective or ineffective, why?
Conditioned reinforcers are effective because they have become associated with unconditioned reinforcers. Money and grades are conditioned reinforcers.
the premack principle:
The Premack Principle, often called “grandmas rule," states that a high frequency activity can be used to reinforce low frequency behavior.
Premack's principle states that any high-frequency activity can be used as a reinforcer for any lower-frequency activity, ex. eating vegetables and ice-cream.
the premack principle has been suggested as a method to improve:
your own behavior.
conditioned taste aversion:
If you eat something with an unfamiliar flavor and then feel ill, you quickly learn to avoid that flavor. Associating eating something with getting sick
founder of observational learning :
Albert Bandura
observational learning is what kind of approach?
social learning
observational learning states:
states that we learn many behaviors before we attempt them for the first time.
Two of the chief components of social learning are
modeling and imitation.
observational learning is
Observational learning is a term we use to describe how an animal learns by watching others. Observational learning occurs with no outside reinforcement -- the animal simply learns by observing.
Memory is a general term for
the storage, retention and recall of events, information and procedures.
Memory is a process by which
we store and retrieve information.
The quality of an individual’s memory may vary based upon
the nature of the information being retained and recalled, the level of interest in it, and its significance to that individual.
The key to using your memory
is that your brain never loses anything. Once a perception or thought is place into your memory, it stays there forever.
What we call forgetting is either
the inability to recall stored info, or the failure to store info. Once info is stored in memory, it is never forgotten. Forgetting tends to begin in seconds unless rehearsal is permitted.
Founder of Memory studies is:
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Studies of memory show meaningful materials are
easier to remember.
Distinctive or unusual information is
easier to retain.
what is the von Restorff effect.
The tendency of people to remember unusual items better than more common items
recall:
is the simplest method for the tester but the most difficult for the person being tested. To recall something is to produce it, as is done on essay and short-answer tests. It is a memory task in which the individual must reproduce material from memory without cue.
retrieval cues:
Young children depend on retrieval cues provided by adults than older children. Reminders or hints that help us to retrieve information from long-term memory are called retrieval cues. They are bits of associated information that help you to regain complex memories.
cued recall:
gives the person being tested significant hints about the correct answer. A fill-in-the-blank test uses this method.
recognition:
requires the person being tested to identify the correct item from a list of choices. Multiple-choice tests use the recognition method. It is a memory task in which the individual indicates whether presented information has been experienced previously.
savings (relearning) method compares:
the speed at which someone relearns material against learning something new. The amount of time saved between the original learning and the relearning is a measure of memory.
All of the processes that were tested by Ebbinghaus involved
Explicit memory
Explicit memory :
memory that we are aware we are using. Explicit Memory is your ability to retain info that you’ve put real effort into learning, like recalling describing a basic principle of classical conditioning to your classmate.
Implicit or indirect memory is the
other major memory process. It is any experience that influences us without our awareness. This is your ability to remember info you did not deliberately try to learn, that you did not know exists. It holds trivial facts, song lyrics, general nonsense your brain files away while you’re concentrating on something else.
Declarative memory is the ability
to state a fact, info, names, dates, faces. Fact memory. It stores why, how, when, where, what, who.
Procedural memory is memory of
how to do something. Skills memory.
It’s conditioned responses like writing, riding bike, typing. It’s performing actions
Semantic is dealing with
principles of knowledge. Like mental dictionary. It stores meanings of words.
Episodic is
containing events and details of life history. Autobio of thoughts, things that happened to us, retention of info about what happened to you
The information-processing model of memory draws an
analogy between a computer and the workings of memory in the human brain.
According to this view, you input information into the system, you file and save it, and you can retrieve the info.
This includes Sensory, Short-Term, Long-Term Memories
sensory memory:
the sensory store is considered to be the first stage of memory processing.
It is a very brief (less than a second) stage that registers everything that is perceived in the moment that we call “now.”
short term memory or working memory
If a friend asks you what was just said in class, and you were paying attention, you could repeat it, or something close to it. This is because you are being asked to recall something from short-term memory.
If you were not paying attention, you would not recall it. Attention moves information from the sensory store to short-term memory.
It’s limited capacity memory of info retained for 30 seconds.
long term memory:
Long-term memory is a relatively permanent storage of mostly meaningful information. When is your birthdate, your address, your social security number, names of your parents.
Chunking
This is grouping or packing info into units, making info more manageable to remember.
There are 3 mental operations required for memory:
encoding, storage, retrieval
encoding:
This is transfer of info into your memory. Put info in
storage:
Holding info for later use. Filing it away.
retrieval:
Recovering info from storage. Finding it.
the SPAR method:
The best strategy for anyone who needs to learn a lot of material is to space out the study sessions
Study the material
Wait for awhile
Return to the material and test yourself on it
mnemonic devices:
Short, verbal strategies that improve, expand our ability to remember new info. Use mental pictures, form unusual mental associations.
role of interference:
If an individual learns several sets of related materials, the retention of the old material makes it harder to retain new material, and the learning of the new materials makes it harder to retain the old.
proactive interference.
retaining old material makes it hard to recall new material
retroactive interference.
learning new material makes it hard to recall old material
reconstruction:
During an event, we construct a memory. When we try to retrieve the memory, we reconstruct an account based partly on surviving memories and partly on expectations of what must have happened.
Hindsight bias is
the tendency to mold our recollection of the past to how events later turned out.
Sigmund Freud believed that it was
possible to repress a painful memory, motivation or emotion, to move it from the conscious to the unconscious mind.
it is possible to forget a traumatic event if:
depends on a number of factors – age at the time of the event, reaction of family, and type of event.
Most people do not forget traumatic events if they happen later than age 3.
flashbulb memory
Long lasting deep memories in response to traumatic events.
false memory
is a report that an individual believes to be a memory but actually never occurred. Memories may or may not be reliable.
repressed memory
is memory of a traumatic event that is made unavailable for recall.
amnesia
is a severe loss or deterioration of memory. We can learn a lot about the different forms of memory by studying these cases. Amnesia is a memory disorder that is caused by brain damage or a traumatic event.
Anterograde amnesia is a
disorder that results in the loss of memory after an injury. Unable to store any new memories.
Retrograde amnesia is a
disorder that results in the loss of memory prior to an injury. Could not remember many events that occurred between 1 and 3 years before his surgery.
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
A degenerative memory disorder caused by chronic alcoholism and vitamin deficiency. Symptoms include amnesia, confabulation, lack of insight and apathy.
treatment of korsakoff's syndrome:
Treatment includes vitamin B injections, proper nutrition, and hydration
Typical symptoms of Korsakoff’s syndrome include –
Apathy and confusion
Retrograde amnesia – usually dating back to about 15 years before the onset of the syndrome.
Anterograde amnesia
confabulation:
wild guessing mixed in with correct information in an effort to hide memory gaps. Patients have pre-frontal cortex damage in brain. Confab fills in gaps or reconstruct in their memory (kind of like a false memory)
dementia:
Condition of a slow decline in memory, problem solving ability, learning ability and judgment.
most common cause of dementia:
Alzheimer's disease
alzheimer's disease
It is a degenerative brain disease where the brain starts wearing down.
Nerve cell death in parts of the brain for memory.
Discovered by Dr. Alois Alzheimer in 1906. He detected tangles and plaques in the brain of a woman.
Symptoms include repeating questions, forgetting how to do simple tasks, forgetting who you are and where you are.
cognition refers to:
to thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge.
Language is intimately
language is related to:
to the activities of cognition. It is a system of arbitrary symbols that can be combined to create an infinite number of meaningful statements.
cognitive psychologists study:
how people think and acquire knowledge, know what they know, and how they solve problems and imagine.
Attention is the tendency to
respond selectively to stimuli
Preattentive process :
Finding an unusual feature or figure relies on a preattentive process, a procedure for extracting information automatically
attentive process :
Finding a typical feature or figure requires an attentive process, a procedure that considers only one part of the visual field at a time.
shifting attention:
During a brief time after perceiving one stimulus it is difficult to attend to something else.
This is the attentional blink.
stroop test:
The Stroop Task is a psychological test of our mental (attentional) vitality and flexibilty
The cognitive mechanism involved in the stroop test is called
directed attention, you have to manage your attention, inhibit or stop one response in order to say or do something else.
change blindness:
Recall the concept of the sensory memory
People believe they remember everything in a scene they have recently scanned
But they frequently fail to detect changes in parts of a scene upon viewing it again
This common failure is referred to as change blindness
categorization
The formation of categories or concepts is one of the primary ways that we organize information about our world.
In general we categorize people, objects or events together when they have important qualities in common. There are a number of ways to categorize.
prototypes:
A prototype is a familiar or typical example of a category.
We decide whether or not an object belongs in a category by determining how well it resembles the prototypical members of the category
explain conceptual networks and priming:
Thinking about something usually means relating it to a network of related concepts.
It’s difficult to think about something “by itself.”
We have a hierarchy in mind of categories and subcategories.
The upper levels of the hierarchy are the more common, broadly shared characteristics.
The lower levels are the more distinctive or special characteristics.
This simplifies the process of classifying.
spreading activation.
When you hear about one concept, the other concepts that you associate with it are also primed or activated.
ex. thinking of the word 'driving' you might think of the word 'road'
4 phases of problem solving:
Understanding and simplifying the problem
Generating hypotheses
Testing the hypotheses
Checking the result
algorithms:
When a problem is well defined, we can apply an algorithm to solve it.
An algorithm is a mechanical, repetitive, step-by-step procedure for arriving at the solution to a problem.
Mathematics is a field of knowledge made up primarily of algorithmic problem solving.
heuristic:
Many problems that we face are too ill defined for the use of any algorithm.
An example of such a problem would be “What career would be best for me?”
For less well defined problems we apply heuristics. Heuristics are strategies for simplifying a problem or guiding an investigation.
problem solving procedure:
a logical step-by-step procedure for solving a mathematical problem in a finite number of steps, often involving repetition of the same basic operation
heuristics make it easier:
for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
heuristics vs. algorithms:
Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.
Insight involves a sudden
novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight.
Critical thinking involves using
our considerable ability to evaluate our own thinking (called metacognition) to carefully evaluate for and against any conclusion.
(heuristics)
The representativeness heuristic is the tendency to assume
that if an item is similar to members of a particular category, it is also a member of the category.
base-rate information
the data about the frequency or probability of a given item or event.
availability heuristic is the
strategy of assuming that how easily one can remember examples of an event is an indicator of how common that event actually is.
overconfidence is our belief:
that our answers are more accurate than they actually are.
what increases our overconfidence?
Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
functional fixedness:
one special case of premature commitment.
It is the tendency to adhere to a single approach to a problem or a single way to use an item. It is narrow adherence to one problem-solving strategy or a single way to use an item.
fixation:
: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness.
framing effect.
The tendency to answer a question differently when it is phrased differently
Belief perseverance is the tendency
to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.
who came up with: transformational grammar.
chompsky
transformational grammar
Almost any human language provides enough vocabulary and grammatical variation that the deep structures can be converted into many differently arranged statements that still represent the same idea.
Broca’s Aphasia –
difficulties in language production
Wernicke’s Aphasia –
difficulty in recalling names of objects and impaired comprehension of language
broca's area:
vital for using and understanding grammatical devices – prepositions, conjunctions, prefixes, suffixes, etc..
wernicke's area:
important for naming objects and comprehending language.
aphasias -
a term for various inabilities to process or use language.
after damage to broca's area and wernicke's area
Phonemes are
units of sound single letters or combinations of letters.
Morphemes are
units of meaning usually syllables or words.
fixations:
Fixations are the periods when your eyes are stationary.
saccades:
Saccades are the quick eye movements that take your gaze from one fixation point to another. You are virtually blind during the saccades.
Speedreaders have briefer
fixations and backtrack less frequently than do average adult readers.
Intelligence is a combination of
general abilities and practiced skill. It can also refer to a generalized problem-solving ability.
The first intelligence tests were developed for
the practical function of selecting students for admissions or placement in schools.
what is intelligence?
The mental abilities that enable one to adapt to, shape or select one’s environment.

The ability to judge to comprehend, and to reason.

The ability to understand and deal with people, objects and symbols.

The ability to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment.
who developed the psychometric approach to intelligence?
Charles Spearman
catell modified spearman's approach by:
He believed that the “g” factor has two components: fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.
Fluid intelligence is the
power of reasoning and applying information.
Crystallized intelligence is
comprised of acquired skills and knowledge and the application of that knowledge to the specific content of a person’s experience.
gardner's theory:
Howard Gardner has proposed that
human beings actually possess
multiple intelligences.
who believed the theory of multiple intelligences?
Howard Gardner
gardner's theory of intelligence:
The multiple intelligences are:
Language abilities
Musical abilities
Logic and mathematical reasoning
Spatial reasoning
Kinesthetic (body movement) skills
Intrapersonal (self-control and understanding) skills
Interpersonal (social sensitivity and awareness) skills
Triarchic Theory proposed by:
Robert Sternberg
Triarchic Theory of intelligence that differentiates between three aspects of intelligent behavior:
The Analytical processes that occur within the individual

The Creative situations that require intelligence

The Practical Intelligence relationship to the external world
who created an IQ test for children and one for adults?
Wechsler
Standardization is the process
of establishing rules for administering a test and for interpreting the scores.
An important step in standardizing a test is
determining the norm which are the descriptions of how frequently various scores occur.
A test is biased if it
systematically underestimates the performance of the members of a certain group.
how are IQ tests biased?
By definition English-language IQ tests are biased against non-English speakers.
Research by Claude Steele suggests
that societal expectations influence individual performance on IQ and related tests.
Stereotype threat refers to
people’s perceived risk that they might do something that supports an unfavorable stereotype about the group.