Psych Exam 1 Study Guide

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Psychological Science

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The study, through research of mind, brain and behavior

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What type of info should one believe in?

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Info that is testable and not one-sided

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Mind

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Refers to mental activity

Perceptual experiences (sights, smell, tastes, sounds, and touches

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Behavior

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The totality of observable human ( or animal actions. From subtle to complex actions.

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Critical thinking

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Systematically questioning and evaluating information using well supported evidence

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Culture

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The beliefs, values, rules, and customs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment

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Nature/Nurture Debate

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The arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture

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Mind/Body problem - A fundamental psychological issue:

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Are mind and body separate and distinct? Or is the mind simply the physical brain's subjective experience?

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William Wundt

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Founded the first psychology laboratory.

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Introspection

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A systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts

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Edward Tichener

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Pioneered school based on Structuralism

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Structuralism

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Approach to psychology based on the idea that conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components

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William James taught Psychology at Harvard. He believed in..

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Funtionalism

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Functionalism

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An approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose or function of mind and behavior

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Stream of Conciousness

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A phase coined by William James to describe each person's continuous series of ever-changing thoughts

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Charles Darwin was influenced by...

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Functionalism

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Charles Darwin's Evolutionary Theory

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Views the history of a species in terms of the inherited, adaptive value of physical characteristics

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Adaptions

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Skills or abilities that increase the chances of reproduction or survival and are therefore likely to be passed along to future generations

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Natural Selection

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Idea that those who inherit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do not

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Max Wertheimer

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Man that was against structuralism.

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Max Wertheimer's Gestalt Theory

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Based on the idea that the whole personal experience is different from the sum of its constituent elements

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Unconscious

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The place where mental processes below the level of conscious awareness

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Behaviorism

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A psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing observable behavior

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Who was the father of the psychoanalytic theory?

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Sigmund Freud

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Psychoanalysis

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Attempts to bring the contents of unconscious into conscious awareness so that conflicts can be revealed

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Who developed behaviorism?

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John B. Watson

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Cognitive Psychology

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The study of characteristic thoughts, emotion, and behaviors in people and how they vary across social situations

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Brain chemistry is different when..?

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We are aroused than calm

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Data

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Measurable outcomes research studies

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Four Goals of Science?

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Description, Prediction, Control, and Explanation

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Research

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The collection of data

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Scientific Method

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The observation of a phenomenon and the question why that phenomenon occurred

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Theory-Hypothesis-Research

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Support or refute theory

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Theory

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An explanation or model of how a phenomenon works

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Hypothesis

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A specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on.

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A good theory is always..

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Falsifiable, parsimonious, and generates a testable hyposthesis

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Replication

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Repetition of a research study to confirm the results

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Variable

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Something in the world that can vary and that a researcher can manipulate

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Dependent Variable

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A variable that gets measured in a research study

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Operational Definition

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A definition that qualifies (describes) and quantifies (measures) a variable so that the variable can be understood objectively

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Independent Variable

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The variable that gets manipulated

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Descriptive Research

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Involves observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematically. Helps scientist describe what phenomenon is.

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Cases Study

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Descriptive research that involves intensive examination of an unusual person or organization

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Observational Studies - Participant observation

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A type of descriptive research in which the researcher is involved in the situation

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Naturalistic Observation

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The researcher is passive observer, seperated from the situation and making no attempts to change or alter ongoing behavior

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Reactivity

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When knowledge that one is being observed alters that behavior being observed

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Hawthorne Effect

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Refers to changes in behavior that occurs when people know that others are observing them

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Observing Bias

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Systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer's expectations

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Experimenter Expectancy Effect

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Actual change in the behavior of the people or nonhuman animals being observed that is due to the expectations of the observer

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Self Report Methods

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People are asked to provide information about themselves, such as surveys or questionnaires

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Correlational Studies

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Examines how variables are naturally related in the real world. without any attempt by the researcher to alter them or assign causation between them. Describing and predicting relationships between variables

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Positive Correlation

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Relationship between two variables in which both variables either increase or decrease together

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Negative Correlation

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A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases when the other decreases (vice-versa)

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Zero Correlation

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A relationship between two variables in which one variable is not predictably related to the other

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Directionality Problem

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Cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

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Third Value Problem

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Problem that occurs when a researcher cannot directly manipulate variables

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Correlational studies can be used for..

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determining if two variables are associated with each other. Also it is ethical to use

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Cofound

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Anything that affects a dependent variable

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The experimental method..

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Controls and explains

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The research method..

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tests casual hypotheses by manipulating and measuring variables

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Internal Validity

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The degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not the confounds

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Correlations

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Describes the relationships between variables

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Descriptive Statstics

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Summarize the data collected in a study

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Genotype

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The genetic constitution of an organism, determined at the moment of conception.

The actual gene that never changes.

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Phenotype

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Observable physical characteristics, which result from both genetic and environmental/behavioral influences.

Always changing gene.

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Monozygotic Twins

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Identical twins split from one zygote (egg)

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Dizygotic Twins

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Fraternal twins that are from two different eggs

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Plasticity

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A property of the brain that allows it to change as a result of experience, drugs, or injury

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Phantom Limb

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The intense sensation that the amputated body parts still exists

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Women brains adapt more for..

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Language than males

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Radial Hemispherectomy

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The removal of one side of the brain. Works better for kids as their brain can re-wire and takeover for the other side

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What happens when sources of bias are eliminated?

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coincidence happens. But you have to rule out coincidence as explanaiton

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Co-incidence

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surprising co-occurrence of events that we perceive as meaningfully related

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Selective Recall

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Tendency to remember only facts or events that are unusual, personally enhancing, or fit narrative

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Confirmation Bias

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Tendency to attend and accept facts that fit our pre-existing beliefs and to discount facts that are contradictory

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Affect Bias

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Tendency to make judgements based on emotions, with little input from deliberative reasoning

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Availability Bias

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Tendency to make judgements on the basis of which examples come most easily to mind

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Gambler's Fallacy

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Tendency to believe that the odds for something with a fixed probability increase or decrease depending upon recent occurrences

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Quasi Experiment

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Using pre-existing groups. Cannot randomly assign subject to position. NOT the same as a regular experiment.

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What is the problem with Quasi experiments?

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Cannot determine casual factors

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Control Group

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does not receive intervention (or receives one unrelated to the independent variable)

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Experimental Group

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Treatment group that receives the intervention

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Selection Bias

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Occurs when not using random assignment.

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Gyri

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Bumps on brain

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Sulci

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Valleys in brain

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Cerebral Cortex

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Outer layer of cerebral hemispheres

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Phrenology

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Correlating bumps on the skull w/ mental traits/personality

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What is the problem with Phrenology?

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It is not accurate

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Phineas Gage

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Man whose prefrontal cortex was damaged. Causing him to have major personality changes, social deficits, and inability to inhibit behavior

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Correlational Techniques involve..

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Observing behavior while measuring brain activities

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Intracranial Recording Electrodes

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Picks up electrical signals in part of the brain

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MRI Scans

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Gives pictures of structures inside the body. Magnetic field used to produce static image of brain tissue. Excellent measure of brain structure but cannot provide info on brain structure

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Functional MRI (fMRI) Scans (Red: more active brain area, Blue: less active brain area)

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Measures blood flow indirectly by assessing changes in blood's oxygen level. Excellent measure of brain activity and structure but has lag time in recording signal

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PET Scans (Posotron Emission Tomography)

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Uses radioactive substance to produce activity related image. Good measure of brain activity can give mechanisms on actions of drugs but weak measure of structure; radioactivity)

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Experimental Techniques include..

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Brain Activation/Inactivation

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Direct Brain Stimulation

Intracranial Stimulation Techniques

Deep Brain Stimulation Techniques

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Brain Activation/Inactivation

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Precisely manipulate specific brain area. Only method that can provide cause and effect info

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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

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Magnetic field manipulates brain activity in a specific brain region (shape of a wand). Sometimes used as a treatment of depression.

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Wilder Penfield

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Neurosurgeon that did surgeries on epileptic procedures. Would map where all functions were on brain (anatomy). Stimulation during brain surgery.

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Intracranial Stimulation Technique

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Electrodes implanted inside brain. Activation of specific brain regions. Experimental Design.

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Deep Brain Stimulation Technique

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Used to treat some disorders (ex: Parkinsons/depression)

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Frontal Lobe Functions & Parts

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Motor Cortex, Brocas Area (Left Hemisphere), Memory, Emotion; Planning

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Motor Cortex (Frontal Lobe)

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Gyrus dedicated to motor control. Neurons in this area send signals to your muscle (ex: neurons at top of cortex tell feet to move).

Some areas of cortex grow w/ more use of certain body part

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Broca's Area (Left Hemisphere of brain)

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Allows you to talk, speech

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Parietal Lobe Functions & Parts

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Spatial Processing, Somatosensory Cortex

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Somatosensory Cortex

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Helps body feel touch

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Disorders of Parietal Lobe

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Neglect Syndrome, Phantom Limb

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Neglect Syndrome (Parietal Lobe Disorder)

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Damage to right parietal lobe.

Someone with this syndrome will ignore left side of everything. Affects current objects and memory

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Temporal Lobe Functions

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Auditory Cortex, Hippocampus (memory), Wernicke's area (Left Hemisphere)

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Auditory Cortex

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Listening to sounds

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Wernicke's Area

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Similar to Broca's, it involves the function of speech and language

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Hippocampus involves

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memory, emotion, and aggression

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Capgrass Delusion (Temporal Lobe Disorder)

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when someone does not believe their spouse is real, they believe it is an imposter

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Visual Cortex

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Part of the Occipital Lobe that is the final stage of vision and recognition (associates w/ color, movement)

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Blindsight (Occipital Lobe Disorder)

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damages the visual cortex, but able to avoid obstacles in their path. Not conscious of object

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Alexia (Occipital Lobe Disorder)

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Suddenly unable to read. They can still spell, write and comprehend what is said to them

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What are some gender differences in the brain?

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-Women recover faster after stroke

- Males have larger brains

-Women have bilateral use, while males show unilateral (left side)

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Gender differences in complex problem solving?

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-females use language related to brain regions

-males use spatial brain related regions

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Neuroplasticity

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Neural "blueprint" for functions

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Cerebellum

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Important for motor learning

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Plasticity

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a property of the brain that allows it to change as a result of experience, drugs, or injury

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Neurogenesis

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New neurons are produced in some brain regions (e.g. the hippocampus)

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The brain changes with use, some examples are..

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London taxi drivers have larger hippiocampi. Not found in London bus drivers

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Example of plasticity

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Phatom limb reflecting cortical remapping in somatosensory cortex

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Nurture

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what you're raised with, you become

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Behavioral Genetics

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method that allows us to separate genetic vs. environmental influences

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First Law of Turkheimer's 3 Laws of Behavior Genetics

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All human behavioral traits are heritable.

Identical twins are twice as similar than fraternal due to genetic influence

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Second Law of Turkheimer's 3 Laws of Behavior Genetics

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The effect of being raised in the same family is smaller than the effect of genes

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Third Law of Turkheimer's 3 Laws of Behavior Genetics

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Differences between people come form influences outside environment (Phenotype: 50% heredity + 50% environment)

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Adoption Studies by Robert Phomin

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Created Colorado Adoption Project. Resulted in kids resembling biological, not adopted parents.

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A true theory provides..

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support from evidence

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Neurons

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basic units of a nervous system. Receive, integrate and transmit information in the nervous system

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Central Nervous System

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consists of brain and spinal cord. Both contain massive amounts of neurons. Organizes and evaluates info then directs the info to the PNS to perform specific behaviors or make bodily adjustments

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Peripheral Nervous System

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consists of all other nerve cells in the rest of the body. Sends a variety of info to the CNS

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Sensory Neurons

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detects info from the physical world and passes that info along to the brain. Usually the spinal cord.

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Motor Neurons

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directs muscles to contract or relax, producing movement

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Interneurons

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communicate within local or short-distance circuits

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Dendrites

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short, branch-like appendages that detect chemical signals from neighboring neurons

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Cell body (soma)

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Collects info received through the dendrites from thousands of other neurons

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Axon

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Narrow outgrowth that receives electrical impulses from cell body and neurons

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Terminal Buttons

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knoblike structures that sends neurotransmitters across the synapse

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Synapse

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where chemical communication occurs between neurons.

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Resting Membrane Potential

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Neuron resting affecting the electric charge inside a membrane. Creates a polarized neuron and activates the neural firing.

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Action Potential (Neural Firing)

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Electrical signal that passes along the axon from the synapse. Response of neuron when it is stimulated.

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Neurotransmitters

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Chemicals in the terminal buttons that are made in the axon and stored in vesicles (small, fluid-filled sacs). Convey signals across the synapse to postsynaptic cells.

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Cross-Sectional (Observational Study)

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making comparisons at a single point in time

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Longitudinal (Observational Study)

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making comparisons over time

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Self-Serving Bias

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Tendency to think one is better than others.

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External Validity

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the finding of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, and situations.

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Inferential Statistics

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whether effects actually exist in the populations from which samples are drawn