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95 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Developmental Psychology
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– study of continuity and change across the lifespan
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Zygote
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– single cell with chromosomes from a sperm and egg
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Germinal Stage
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– 2 week period of prenatal development that begins at conception. cell begins to divide
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Embryonic State
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––period of prenatal development that lasts from the 2nd week to the 8th week after conception
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Fetal State
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– 9 weeks-birth
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Myelination
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the formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a brain cell
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teratogens
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agents that damage the process of development, such as drugs and viruses
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Infancy
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begins at birth and lasts for 18 to 24 monthes
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Motor Development
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– the emergence of the ability to execute physical action
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Cephalocaudal Rule
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– motor skills emerge from head to feet
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Proximodistal Rule
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– motor skills emerge from center to periphery
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Cognitive Development
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– emergence of ability to understand the world
– Piaget proposed stages of development - mental models of the physical world and other minds |
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Sensorimotor Stage
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(birth to infancy) control and organize reflexes (0-4 mos)
- acquire information about the world by sensing and moving around in it; object permanence begins (4-8 mos) - develop schema; explore new uses for object; increasing memory, language, imitation |
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Preoperational Stage
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(2-6 years) – acquires motor skills, doesn’t understand conservation of physical properties
- have preliminary understanding of physical world - increased memory, language, imitation, but has egocentrism |
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Concrete Operational
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(6-11 years) – child can think logically, not intuitively, and understands conservation of physical properties
- basic understanding of physcial world and preliminary understanding of their own and other's minds (no longer egocentric) - understand events are often influenced by multiple factors - cannot abstract rules; 29 even or odd? |
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Jean Piaget(1896-1980)
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(1896-1980) Constructivist approach ; development through stages
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Formal Operational
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(11-adulthood) – child can think logically about abstract propositions and hypothetical situations. -- Deeper understanding of the mind and learn to reason abstractly
- piaget believed attainment, in contrast to other stages, is not a given |
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Central properties of Piaget’s stage theory
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Broad applicability across topics and contexts
Brief transitions Invariant sequence |
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Assimilation
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infants apply schema in novel situations
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Object Permanence
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objects continue to exist even when they are not visible
- sensorimotor milestone |
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Schema
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theories about or models of the way the world works
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Childhood
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begins at 18-24 monthes and lasts to adolescence
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conservation
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quantitative properties of an object are invariant despite changes in the object's appearance
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Egocentrism
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– failure to understand that the world appears differently to different observers
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Theory of Mind
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– idea that human behavior is guided by mental representation = realize that everyone has a mind that represents the world in a different way
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Attachment
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– emotional bond with a primary caregiver
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Strange Situation
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– test developed by Mary Ainsworth to determine a child’s attachment style
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Secure attachment
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– distressed when leaves, comforted when returns
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Avoidant attachment
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– ignores when parent leaves and returns, not upset
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ambivalent attachment
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anxious, clings to parent, inconsolable, rejects parent when returns, whines, pouts
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disorganized attachment
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no consistent pattern
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Internal Working Model of Attachment –
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a set of expectations about how the primary caregiver will respond when the child feels insecure
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Temperaments
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Characteristic patters of emotional reactivity
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Preconventional Stage
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– stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor
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Conventional Stage
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– stage in which the morality is determined by the extent to which is conforms to social rules
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Postconventional Stage
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– stage in which some adults determine morality by a set of general principles that reflect core values
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adolescence
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begins with sexual maturity (11-14) and lasts until the beginning of adulthood (18-24)
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Primary Sex Characteristics
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bodily structures that are directly involved in reproduction
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Secondary Sex Characteristics
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bodily structures that change dramatically with sexual maturity but that are not directly involved in reproduction
- african american girls mature faster than european american girls |
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Moral Intuitionist Perspective
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– we have evolved to react emotionally to some events, and we have developed the distinction of right and wrong to label and explain the emotional reactions
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Anxiety
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– alarm function that we might be excluded from the group
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Oxytocin
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– hormone that causes maternal behavior – biological basis of attachment
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Androgen
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– gay men have too much
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Brain Development
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After birth, human cortex continues to develop.
In first year, the number of synapses increases 10 fold. Brain size, like body size, increases in spurts over childhood. |
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cognition
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Virtually everything we do requires
cognitive processing Recalling a phone number Remembering a list Following directions Reading your watch |
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Assimilation & Accommodation
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Two processes work together from birth to propel development forward
- Assimilation = apply theory = things come closer when i pull them - Accommodation = revise theory = only inanimate things come closer when pulled |
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How do you study what a baby thinks?
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- can control eyes and can nurse (suck)
- study habituation and dishabituation |
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Baby Interested
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look at screen/fast, rythmin suck
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Habituation
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(lose interest) - look away / decreased suck rate
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Dishabituation
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(regain interest) - look back at screen / increased suck rate
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Spatial egocentrism
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(Three Mountain Task) developed by Jean Piaget in the 1940s; a child faces a display of three model mountains while a researcher placed a doll at different viewpoints of the display.; asked the child to reconstruct the display from the doll's perspective, select from a set of pictures showing the doll's view, and identify a viewpoint for the doll specified by a picture of the display. Some children around age four did not distinguish between their own view and that of the doll, a tendency interpreted by Piaget as evidence of egocentrism.
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Egocentric Conversation
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concurrent monologues
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CAT-DOG task
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picture of a cat wearing a dog mask
- Most 3-year-olds believed that the cat had become a dog |
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SPONGE-ROCK task:
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3-year-olds insisted it is a rock
although they were asked to handle it |
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Conservation Video
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- Juice in glasses poured one cup into diff shaped cup = diff amount
- quarters = two rows of same amount; make one longer = more quarters - grahm crackers - 1vs 2 = not equal, broke the 1 in half = equal |
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Piaget's Pendulum
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Concrete Ops; task compare the motions of longer and shorter strings, with lighter and heavier weights attached, in order to determine the influence of weight and string length on motion
- Children below age 12 perform unsystematic experiments and draw incorrect conclusions |
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Piaget's Stages: Grain of Salt
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Competences can be seen earlier by:
- Make task more familiar - Reduce extraneous distractions - Simplify questioning, Different methods |
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Piaget’s Major Contributions
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-Mental models advance; Continually added to and revised
- Discontinuous leaps forward (spurts); 2 years, 4 years |
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Early preference for animacy
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Newborns (24 h old) have a preference for looking at faces over non-face items; can follow them longer
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Attention to Eyes
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2-month old infants looked almost as long at eyes as at whole face but looked less at other parts of face
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Precursors to ToM: social imitation
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= Imitate the actions of persons, but not mechanical objects
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Precursors to ToM: social referencing
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- (10-12mos) = attend to others emotional expressions
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Gaze monitoring
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- (9 - 14mos) = will follow the gaze of another person
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Sally-Ann Task
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Sally then returns and the children are asked where they think she will look for her marble. Children are said to "pass" the test if they understand that Sally will most likely look inside her basket before realizing that her marble isn't there.
- gold standard for theory of mind - 2.5 - 5 years (mean 4) |
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Variables affecting ToM development
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- number of siblings = children with one or more siblings pass false-beliefs at higher rates than only children
- play experiences = co-operative or pretend play with others |
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Second order false belief
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- 6 yrs; policeman and burgular who drops glove and runs
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Reading the Mind in the Eyes
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- adults find difficult
- females better than males - people with autism are at chance |
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Sex vs. Gender
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Sex = Physiological/Biological
Gender = Cultural/Social |
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Sex Differences
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Start out looking the same
Androgens help to form male/female characteristics; highly present in male babies |
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Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
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= ambiguous genitalia
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Psychologist Theory of Gender Ambiguity
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theory that when born it doesn’t matter what genitalia you have, its all in your head = not true; example with boy who has penis fired off and becomes a girl
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Sex Differences
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physical Constitution = females are sturdier
aggression: men = physical; women = verbal (testosterone) |
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White Collar Crimes
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Men have less testosterone than men who commit more violent crimes
- same for women |
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Hemispheric Specialization
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Women have more distributed function
Women have a thicker corpus callosum = where information is transferred in the brain |
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The Autistic Male Brain
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Autism is much more common in men; Impaired theory of mind; Social and communication problems
- Autistic spectrum disorders (1 in 150 people) 5 times more common in boys |
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Baron-Cohen’s Theory
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– autism is "the extreme male brain"
– Two styles of figuring out the world Empathizing and systemizing |
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Empathizers
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• Understand / care about how others feel
• Predict others’ thoughts and behaviors • Respond with appropriate affect to others’ affective states • Understand the social world |
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Systemizers
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World of “if-then” logic relations: “If I do X then Y happens”
Focus on details and understand physical laws and relations |
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E > S = Female?
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• Girls show more empathy at early ages
• Girls better at theory of mind tasks • Girls are more cooperative, more likely to share, and more likely to take turns • Females less likely to be psychopathic • Language skills and conversation style • Girls look at faces more and are better at nonverbal communication |
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S > E = Male Brain?
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Boys show more interest in mechanical toys
• Some occupations are nearly totally male – Weapons making, boat building • Males 13 times more likely to score over 700 on SAT-Math • Males better at map reading, mental rotation, and tests of intuitive physics • Males have strange collections – trainspotters |
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Is S > E Autism?
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Girls > Boys at theory of mind tasks, with early development of language, in making eye contact
Boys > Girls in intuitive physics, in toy choice of cars, machines |
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Biological Basis of Male/Female Brain
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– Finger length ratio (2D:4D)
• Males tend to have longer ring fingers than second (index) fingers • Those with Autism and Aspergers even more so • This ratio influenced by hormones in the womb – Early Puberty = Those with autism have early puberty; Influenced by testosterone – Genetics = Higher rates of autism in engineers, mathematicians |
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Why are there sex
differences? |
men and women have faced different adaptive challenges in evolution, so have different brains
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Evolutionary Psychology
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• Brain evolved to solve adaptive problems
• Based on Darwinian Sexual Selection – Adaptive behaviors are those that lead to a selective advantage in survival and reproduction • Modern mind in a stone-age brain – Evolution occurs slowly |
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Adaptive Problems
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• Men and women face different adaptive problems
• Females – Intensive care of small number of offspring – Additional matings are trouble – Advantage if has male resources for assistance • Males – Each mating has reproductive payoff |
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Receptivity to Sexual Offers
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Clark & Hatfield 1989
I have been noticing you around campus. I find you attractive …. – would you go out with me tonight? – would you come over to my apartment tonight? – Would you go to bed with me tonight? |
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What do you want in a spouse?
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According to evolutionary theory
– Men should want someone who looks fertile and may have good genes – Women should want someone who has resources, and will stick around and help look after the children |
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Gender
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Sex-role socialization
Based on stereotypes – Draw a scientist or doctor child will draw a man |
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Sources of Socialization
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Home, Media, School
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Sexual Orientation
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Known throughout history; 2 - 4 % of humans
– Hard to explain from evolutionary view – Early theories stressed deviance – Freud emphasized parenting- Domineering mother and passive father |
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Prenatal hormone (androgen)
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Index finger normally shorter (for women, only slightly)
Each (male) pregnancy leads to higher levels of androgens • Lesbians - especially shorter • Gays with older brothers - especially shorter |
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Older male siblings increase
probability of homosexuality |
The more androgens in the womb, the greater
the masculinizing of a fetus. • Greater masculinizing greater probablity of homosexuality of female and male fetuses |
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Fruit flies and sexual orientation
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Master gene (fru) determines sexual behavior
– Altering expression of fru changes sexual orientation |
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Genetics
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– 52% of identical (MZ) twins of homosexual men were
homosexual • vs. 22% of fraternal (DZ) twins; 11% of adoptive brothers – 48% of identical (MZ) twins of homosexual women were homosexual • vs 16% fraternal (DZ ) twins, 6% of adoptive sisters |
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Summary
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• Females and males differ on those domains in which there were different adaptive challenges. – E.g., sexual behavior
• Some apparent sex differences may be due to gender socialization. • There is some evidence that homosexuality is influenced by biological factors (genes, androgens). |
