Psych As A Natural Science, Chs. 6,8,10

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consciousness

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the person's subjective experience of the world and the mind

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cartesian theater

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(after philosopher Rene Descartes) a mental screen or stage on which things appear to be presented for viewing by the mind's eye

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phenomenology

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how things seem to the conscious person

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problem of other minds

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the fundamental difficulty we have in perceiving the consciousness of thoers

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mind/body problem

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the issues of how the mind is related to the brain and body

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dichotic listening

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a taks in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear

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cocktail party phenomenon

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a phenomenon in which people tune in one message even while they filter out others nearby

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selectivity of consciousness

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ability to include some objects but not others

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minimal consciousness

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a low-level kind of sensory awareness and responsiveness that occurs when the mind inputs sensations and may output behavior. Basic sensory awareness and responsiveness, like turning over when someone pokes you in your sleep

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full consciousness

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consciousness in which you know and are able to report your mental state

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self-consciousness

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a distinct level of consciousness in which the person's attention is drawn to the self as an object

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mental control

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the attempt to change conscious states of mind

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thought supression

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the conscious aviodance of a thought

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rebound effect of thought suppression

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the tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency following suppression

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ironic processes of mental control

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mental processes that can produce errors because monitoring for errors can itslef produce them

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dynamic unconscious

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an active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, the person's deepest instincts

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repression

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a mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts and memories from consciousness

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cognitive unconscious

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the mental processes that give rise to the person's thoughts, choices emotions, experienced by the person

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subliminal perception

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a thought of behavior that is influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving. Does occur, but the degree of influence it has on behavior is not very large.

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altered states of consciousness

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forms of experience that depart from the normal subjective experience of the world and the mind. Can be accompanied by changes in thinking, disturbances in the sense of time, feelings of the loss of control, changes in emotional expression, alterations in body image and sense of self, perceptual distortions, and changes in meaning or significance

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circadian rhythm

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naturally occurring 24-cycle. Evidence actually shows that people tend to have a natural cycle of 25.1 hours

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REM sleep

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a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity. When measured by an EEG produces saw-tooth waves, short waves. The pulse quickens, blood pressure rises, and there are telltale signs of sexual arousal. Evidence suggests that people dream during REM sleep. People deprived of REM sleep wake up with memory problems and excessive aggression. REM sleep could be psychologically useful

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electrooculograph (EOG)

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an instrument that measures eye movements

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insomnia

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difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep

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sleep amnia

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a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep

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somnambulism

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(sleep walking) occurs when the person arises and walks around while asleep. Most common in children, peaking around the age of 10 or 11, with as many as %25 of children experiencing at least one episode. Tends to happen early in the night, during slow-wave sleep

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narcolepsy

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a disorder in which sudden sleep attacks occur in the middle of waking activities

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sleep paralysis

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the experience of waking up unable to move. Happens during hypnogogic or hypnopompic sleep, and may occur with the sensation of pressure on the chest

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night terrors

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(or sleep terrors) abrupt awakening with panic and intense emotional arousal. Most common in boys between the ages of 3 and 7, and usually happens early in the sleep cycle, with no dreams attached

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manifest content

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a dream's apparent topic or superficial meaning

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latent content

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a dream;s true underlying meaning

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activation-synthesis model

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the theory that dreams are produced when the brain attempts to make sense of activations that occur randomly during sleep.

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psychoactive drugs

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a chemical that influences consciousness or behavior by altering the brain's chemical message system

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drug tolerance

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the tendency for larger doses of a drug to be required over time to achieve effect

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depressants

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substances that reduce the activity of the central nervous system. Examples include alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and toxic inhalants like glue. Have a calming effect, tend to induce sleep in high doses, arrest breathing in extremely high doses. Alcohol increases the activity of the neurotransmiter GABA, which inhibits the transmission of neural impulses

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expectancy theory

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the idea that alcohol effects can be produced by people's expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations

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balanced placebo design

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a study design in which behavior is observed following the presence or absence of an actual stimulus and also following the presence of absence of a placebo stimulus

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alcohol myopia

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a condition that results when alcohol hampers attention, leading people to respond in simple ways to complex situations

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stimulants

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substances that excite the central nervous system, heightening arousal and activity levels. Includes caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine, cocaine, and ecstasy. These increase the levels of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, thereby inducing higher levels of activity in the brain circuits that depend on these neurotransmiters. Withdrawal symptoms involve depressive effects such as fatigue and negative emotions.

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narcotics/opiates

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highly addictive drugs derived from opium that relieve pain. Includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. Induce a feeling of well-being and relaxation. Opiates resemble the natural endorphins in our bodies.

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endorphins/endogenous opiates

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neurotransmitters that have a simiar structure to opiates and that appear to play a role in how the brain copes internally with pain and stress

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harm reduction approach

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a response to high-risk behaviors that focuses on reducing the harm such behaviors have on people's lives

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hallucinogens

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drugs that alter sensation and perception and often cause visual and auditory hallucinations

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marijuana

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the leaves and buds of the hemp plant. Brain receptors that are normally sensitive to anandamide are also sensitive to THC (the main ingredient in marijuana). Anandamide is involved in the regulation of mood, memory, appetite, and pain perception.

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hypnosis

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an altered state of consciousness characterized by suggestibility and the feeling that one's actions are occurring involuntarily

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posthypnotic amnesia

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the failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget

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hypnotic analgesia

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the reduction of pain through hypnosis in people who are susceptible to hypnosis

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meditation

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the practice of intentional contemplation

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learning

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some experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner

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habituation

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a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding. Simple kind of learning that usually isn't permanent

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classical conditioning

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when a neutral stimulus evokes a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a resposne

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

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unconditioned response (UR)

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a reflexive reaction that is reliable elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

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conditioned stimulus (cs)

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a stimulus that is initially neutral and produces no reliable response in an organism

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conditioned response (CR)

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a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimukus

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acquisition

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the phase a classical conditioning when the SA and the US are presented together

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second-order conditioning

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conditioning where the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to produce learning from an earlier procedure in whih=ch it was used as a CS

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extinction

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the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the US is no longer presented

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spontaneous recovery

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the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

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generalization

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a process in which the CR is observed even thought the CS is slightly different from the original one ised during acquisition

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discrimination

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the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

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biological preparedness

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a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others. Humans and animals quickly link tastes and smells with nausea, but not sights and sounds with nausea. We learn quickly to avoid food that causes nausea. Also, we have a propensity to be attracted to fatty and sugary foods. Propensity to avoid things that endangered out survival in the past, and are attracted to things that helped our survival

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operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future

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law of effect

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the principle that behaviors that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated and those that produce an "unpleasant state of affairs" are less likely to be repeated.

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operant behavior

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behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment

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reinforcer

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any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

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punisher

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any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

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overjustification effect

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circumstances when external rewards can undermine the instrinsic satisfaction of performing a behavior

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fixed interval schedule (FI)

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an operant conditioning principle in which reinforcements are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made. They show little response right after the presentation of reinforcement, but as the next time interval draws to a close, they show a burst of responding.

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variable interval schedule (VI)

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an operant conditioning principle in which behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement. This typically produces steady and consistent responding because of the time until the next reinforcement is less predictable.

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fixed ratio schedule (FR)

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an operant conditioning principle in which reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made. This process gets the most response, the subject knows when it will get rewarded.

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variable ratio schedule (VR)

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an operant conditioning principle in which the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses. This one produces a slightly higher rate of responding than fixed ration because subjects don't know exactly how many responses it will take to get the reward.

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intermittent reinforcement

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an operant conditioning principle in which only some of the respones made are followed by reinforcement

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intermittent-reinforcement effect

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the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement.

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shaping

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learning that results from the reinforcement of successive approximations to a final desired behavior

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latent learning

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a condition in which something is learned but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future. Can be easily established in rats without any obvious reinforcement. Challenges the behaviorists belief that all learning requires some reinforcement

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cognitive map

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a mental representation of the physical features of the environment. Tolman got rats to learn a maze. Suggests that learning is much more than animals responding to stimulus

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observational learning

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a condition in which learning takes place by watching the actions of others

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implicit learning

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learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition

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motivation

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the purpose for or cause of an action

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hedonic principles

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the notion that all people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain

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homeostasis

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the tendency for a system to take action to keep itself in a particular state

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drive

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an internal state generated by departures from physiological optimality

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bulimia nervosa

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an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging

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anorexia nervosa

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an eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of being fat and severe restriction of food intake

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lateral hypothalamus

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receives orexigenic signals, that turn hunger on

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ventromedial hypothalamus

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receives anorexigenic signals that turn hunger off

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metabolism

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the rate at which energy is used by the body

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human sexual response cycle

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the stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity

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extrinsic motivation

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a motivation to take actions that are not themselves rewarding but that lead to reward. Flossing to prevent gum disease, taking this exam so I can get a college degree

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conscious motivation

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a motivation of which one is aware

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unconscious motivation

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a motivation of which one is not aware

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need for achievement

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the motivation to selve worthwhile problems

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approach motivation

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a motivation to experience positive outcomes

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avoidance motivation

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a motivation not to experience negative outcomes

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hypnagogic state

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presleep consciousness

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hypnic jerk

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a sudden quiver or sensation of falling that occurs during the hypnagogic state

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hypnopompic state

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post-sleep consciousness, often imprecise and foggy

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beta waves

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high frequency activity detected by a EEG that indicates alertness

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alpha waves

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lower-frequency waves detected by an EEG that indicates relaxation

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theta waves

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even lower frequency waves than alpha waves that occur in the first stage of sleep

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stage 1 of sleep

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theta waves

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stage 2 of sleep

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theta waves interrumpted by sleep spindles and K complexes (long waves), and sleep becomes more difficult to awaken

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stage 3/4

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deepest levels of sleep, characterized by delta waves (slow waves)

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Five characteristics of dream consciousness

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(1) emotion (2) illogical thought (3) sensation is fully formed and meaningful (4) uncritical acceptance of the bizzare happenings (5) difficulty remembering dreams

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Four basic properties of Consciousness

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(1) intentionality of consciousness
(2) unity of consciousness
(3) selectivity of consciousness
(4) transience of consciousness

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intentionality of consciousness

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the quality of being directed towards an object

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unity of consciousness

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is its resistance to division, concentration

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selectivity of consciousness

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capacity to include some objects and not others - cocktail party phenomenon

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transience of consciousness

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tendency to change. the mind wanders not just sometimes, but incessantly, from topic to topic

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Resorla-Wagner model

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Classical conditioning only occurs when animals have learned to set up an expectation. They introduced a cognitive component that accounted for a variety of classical-conditioning phenomena that were difficult to understand from a simple behaviorist point of view. It is easier to establish a CS when it is unfamiliar

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fast mapping

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bursts of learning that toddlers, and apparently Rico the dog, go through as they acquire the meaning words. Works by association (shown a dog and hear the word dog) and by inference (sees a cat, a dog, and an unknown object. Hearing look at the duck, will know that the unknown object is the duck)

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positive reinforcement

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something desirable is presented to increase the likelihood of behavior

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positive punishment

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something unpleasant is administered to decrease the likelihood of behavior

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negative reinforcement

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something undesirable is removed to increase the likelihood of behavior

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negative punishment

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something desirable is removed to decrease the likelihood of behavior

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primary reinforcers

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food, shelter, comfort, warmth

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secondary reinforcer

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these have little to do with biological satisfaction, but effective because of their relation to primary reinforcers. For example, money, and its ability to buy food and comfort

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pleasure center of the brain

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medial forebrain bundle - pathway that meanders its way from the midbrain through the hypothalamus into the nucleus acumbens. Also includes pituitary gland, amygdala, and hippocampus.

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four stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity

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(1) excitement phase
(2) plateau phase
(3) orgasm
(4) resolution

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four stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity

excitement phase

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muscle tension and blod flow increase in and around sexual organs, heart and respiration rates increase, and blood pressure rises.

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four stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity

plateau

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heart rate and muscle tension increase further. a man's urinary bladder closes, muscles at the base of the penis begin a steady rhythmic contraction, secrete a small amount of lubricating fluid. In women, the clitoris may withdraw slightly, vagina becomes more lubricated, muscles may tighten

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four stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity

orgasm

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breathing becomes extremely rapid and pelvic muscles begin a series of contractions. Men ejaculate.

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four stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity

resolution

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muscles relax, blood pressure drops, body returns to resting state.

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intrinsic motivation

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a motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding, like eating french fries because they taste good. They are the payoff.