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187 Cards in this Set
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- Back
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Gerontology
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– the study of biological, psychological and social aspects of aging
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Geriatrics
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study of prevention and management of diseases of aging.
Focus on medical problems |
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Percentage of Adults in Nursing homes
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only 5% of 65 & older but 25% of 85 and older
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Life expectancy; male vs. female
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Female 82.0
Male 74.2 |
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Six leading causes of Death
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1 Heart Diseases
2 Cancer 3 Cerebrovascular disease (stroke) 4 Lower respiratory disease 5 Alzheimer’s 6 Diabetes |
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Ageism
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“prejudice and discrimination against older adults simply because of their age”
Everyone regardless of ethnic or social background |
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Life expectancy; white vs. black
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Males 75; all 76; white 70; black
Females 80; all 81; white 77; black |
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Psychosocial Stressors
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retirement
social isolation loss of independence low income sense of lack of productivity caregiving burdens chronic illnesses |
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Generational cohort
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aggregation of individuals who experience the same event within the same time interval
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Life-span Perspective
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age related changes in behavior throughout life; development never stops
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Six Key Perspectives on Life-Span Development
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1. Development is a lifelong process
2. Development includes both gains and losses 3. Development is multi- dimensional, directional & causal 4. Development is plastic 5. Development is embedded in historical, cultural and social contexts 6. Development is a multidisciplinary field |
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Plasticity
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within limits, an individuals development is modifiable, based on life experiences; "actual development" causal outcome
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Biopsychosocial Model
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identifies biological, psychological, and social factors as interralated influences on health and illness
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Normative Age-graded
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– predictable, universally experienced events closely tied to an individual’s age. (e.g., puberty)
Highly similar across individuals and cultures. |
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Normative History-graded
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influences that are a result of events occurring during a particular historical era. (e.g., war)
A group of people who experience the same historical events are somewhat similar. Cohort – group born at similar time. Cohort Effect – effect of year of birth. |
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– experiences that are unique or contribute to uniqueness in development. (e.g., immigrant status, serious illness)
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Non-normative Influences
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Psychology of aging is data rich but theory poor; true or false?
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TRUE.
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The Psychology of the Aged
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Focus on older people and later life (> 65yrs.)
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The Psychology of Age
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Focuses on age differences
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The Psychology of Aging
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Focuses on age-associated changes
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Primary aging
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changes intrinsic to the aging process that are ultimately irreversible
-Slowness is the most common feature of primary aging slower information processing speed |
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Secondary aging
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changes caused by illness that are correlated with age but are preventable or reversible
1. Aging is a disease 2. Aging and disease are distinct processes 3. Relationship between aging and disease forms a continuum Secondary Aging: chronic disease (cancer, CHD) |
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changes that occur precipitously in old age
“Complete shut down of body systems” -pervasive process of deterioration |
Tertiary Aging
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Largest ethnic minority group of OA
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African Americans
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Poorest segment of OA
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Native Americans
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Being both old and a member of an ethnic minority group places individual at a
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psychosocial disadvantage
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. Naturalistic Observation/Field Method
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Behavior in real-life settings (the field)
Less artificial No control/manipulation Complex observation Observer fatigue a problem |
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Self-Reports: Interviews, Surveys & Questionnaires
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most commonly used
Set of questions pertaining a subject’s attitudes, beliefs, behaviors or experiences Lots of information from a large group Quality of questions affects validity Answers depend on subject’s honesty Faulty memory, social desirability |
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Case Studies
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In-depth investigation of one individual
Great deal of information is gathered Much of information is retrospective Study involves only one individual so lack of generalizability |
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reliabilty and validity
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get it
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correlational
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experimental
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cross sectional
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longitudinal
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sequential
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Strongest design
Minimizes confounding of age, cohort & time |
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random events & 5 major theories
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unpredictable insults from the environment (e.g., mutations)
Cross-Linking Theory Wear and Tear Theory Free Radical Theory Rate of Living Theory Somatic Mutations Theory |
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programmed events
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events that are biologically determined to occur (e.g., decline in immune function)
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skin protein collagen wrinkles
eye lens proteins cataracts artery walls atherosclerosis |
cross linking: Inappropriate attachments in our proteins, DNA and other structural molecules (cross-linking)
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Years of damage to cells, tissues & organs eventually wears them out, killing them & the body
Damage begins at the molecular level (DNA) from toxins, radiation & ultraviolet light |
wear and tear
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Mutations or spontaneous changes in our genes
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Somatic Mutations Theory
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Random events sufficient to explain aging; true or false
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false; NOT sufficient
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pacemaker theory
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Based on a “Biological Clock”
Body systems set at birth to run for a period of time, then wind down, leading to aging and death Two body systems most often suggested: Neuroendocrine System Immune System |
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Complex connections between brain and nervous system and our endocrine glands
Hypothalamus Pituitary Glands Hormones With aging, _______ function decrease and lead to: increased BP Impaired sleep, impaired sugar metab. |
Neuroendocrine System
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Programmed Events Theories:
Immune System |
Key immune cells decrease as we age
T-cells and to a lesser degree B-cells decrease with age |
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Programmed Events Theories:
Genetic Theory |
Lifespan is predetermined by genes we inherit
Evidence includes consistent life expectancy across members of a specie, females live longer Long-lived parents --> long-lived children -external forces can affect our genes Families with high numbers of centenarians |
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Which Aging Theory Wins?
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that a combination of genetic and random events is responsible for aging.
Any single limited theory of aging is certain to be insufficient. |
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Cutting caloric intake by __% is the only approach that has longer longevity in worms, mice and insects
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30%; “Undernutrition without malnutrition”
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Telomeres; is there a genetic clock for aging?
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tips of chromosomes that contain repeating sequences of genetic material
- tips shorten every time the cell divides When telomeres reach a critically short length, cell can no longer replicate Biological clock genetically predetermined to wind down |
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The Nervous System (NS) & Aging
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CNS - Brain and Spinal Cord -> Peripheral NS: Somatic NS (Voluntary Muscles) and Autonomic NS (Involuntary Muscles) -> ANS: Sympathetic high energy fight or flight and Parasympathetic low energy Relax/Restore
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Regulation of body systems for life support
(respiration, digestion, excretion, blood circulation) Hypothalamus (know role) |
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
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Hypothalamus in Autonomic NS
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mostly controls the function of the ANS (coordination and communication)
-Coordinates info form other systems - Communicates with other parts of the brain |
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-responsible for fight or flight
-body’s response to stressful and energy demanding situations - activiation releases norepinephrine |
Sympathetic Nervous System
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Effects of Aging on Sympathetic Nervous System
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increase of norepinephrine (excitatory neurotransmitter) in older adults; SNS may be working to compensate for less responsive tissues
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Effects of Aging on Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Restorative process when body is at rest (slowing heart rate, blood from muscles to organs)
Acetylcholine – major NT of this system |
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major neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic NS
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Acetylcholine
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major neurotransmitter of the sympathetic NS
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norepinephrine (excitatory neurotransmitter)
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Age-Related Neuronal Changes
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Once neuron dies, no regeneration
If changes occur rapidly with more severity—disease is often present |
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Two problems in differentiating normal vs. abnormal brain aging:
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-Same changes occur in normal & abnormal
-hence, difficult to tie these changes to disease |
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What happens in Axon Terminals?
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Release neurotransmitters
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Who's job is it to transport impulse?
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Axon
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What do Dendrites do?
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Receive Chem signals from other cells; progressive loss in #’s with age, some die and some grow
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Neurofibrillary Tangles
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axon fibers become twisted & form tangles
-large # leads to Alzheimers; age related change in Axon |
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Cell Body
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Nucleus, cell activity
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Granulovacuolar Degeneration
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cell body age related change; spaces in the cell body called Vacuoles accumulate
- Mostly occurs in the Hippocampus (area associated with memory) |
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What is the area associated with memory?
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Hippocampus
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Neuritic (Senile) Plaques
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remains of dead neurons collect around & form abnormal accumulation of hard tissue
- increase with old age; higher increase (accumulation) causes decrease in normal function |
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Once _____ dies there is no replacement
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neuron
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Plasticity Model
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Dendritic growth & regeneration through life
Reactive process dependent on environmental stimulation (learning promotes dendritic growth) |
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Hypothesized Causes of Neuron Loss
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—Lipofuscin Hypothesis
—Circulatory Deficit Hypothesis |
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Circulatory Deficit Hypothesis—
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circulatory deficits lead to deprivation of blood supply leading to cell death ; possible cause of neuron loss
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Lipofuscin Hypothesis—
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yellowish pigment in cell body interfering with metabolism leading to cell death ; possible cause of neuron loss
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Age-Related Changes in the Synapse
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Two opposing processes:
-Neuron death and synapse growth - Age is not associated with change in number (neuron loss and synapse growth) - Consistent with the plasticity model -No universal loss of these neurotransmitters -Some stability of the neurotransmitter in other areas -Other neurotransmitters may compensate in the area of loss -In general, the integrity of major brain pathways is maintained |
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_____________________ at the synaptic cleft forms basis for communication of info between neurons.
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Release and re-uptake of neurotransmitters (NTs
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Which are the Neurotransmitters?
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Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Norepinephrine
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involved in cholinergic pathway, associated with consolidation of short-term memory (Hipppocampus)
AGING effect: associated with decrease in cholinergic cells (Alzheimer’s |
Acetylcholine
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dopaminergic pathway of basal ganglia associated with motor movements
Aging – associated with decrease in dopaminergic cells |
Dopamine
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involved in postural balance, muscle tone, arousal and sleep
Aging associated with increase circulating nor-epinephrine -> sleep disturbance, arousal & decrease norepi pathways -> posture difficulties |
Norepinephrine
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Subcortical motor control structures 25% decrease in _______ (sensory info for movement)
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Purkinje cells; decreases after 60
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neuronal fallout in several key areas: visual, somatosensory, auditory—up to 50% (higher cognitive functn, judgment, analysis)
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Cerebra Cortex
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relatively intact BUT significant decrease (40% of neurons) in locus of coeruleus (sleep, arousal
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Brain Stem
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The reason for these changes (white matter in brain) is unclear, but it may be related to the normal _________________ in the brain with age
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slowing of information processing
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The_________ is a communication channel for the brain's information processing gray matter
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white matter
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The memory center of the brain is?
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hippocampus
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Autonomic NS and Aging
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Body Temperature Control
> 65—impaired ability to adapt to extremes |
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Body Temperature Control
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Poor Responses to Cold Temperatures:
-Reduction in awareness of lower core body temp. (hypothalamic function?) -Older women have greater protection to cold temp. (increase in Body fat, hormones?) Poor Responses to Hot Temperatures: Reduction in sweat gland production in OAs |
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Theories of Sleep
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-Repair/Restoration
-Evolutionary/Circadian |
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Sleep allows for recuperation from physical, emotional, and intellectual fatigue.
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Repair/Restoration
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Sleep evolved to conserve energy and protect our ancestors from predators.
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Evolutionary/Circadian
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Stages of Sleep
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Hypnagogic state, Non-REM, REM
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“pre-sleep” stage marked by visual, auditory and kinesthetic sensations.
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Hypnagogic state
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rapid eyes movements, high frequency brain waves, paralysis of large muscles and dreaming
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REM
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Consolidation of new memories
Role in learning Absent in lower mammals |
REM sleep
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People deprived of all sleep show greater time spent in non-REM sleep the next night.
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Non-REM sleep
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Strong relationship between quality of sleep and _______________.
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psychological symptoms
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Sleep patterns in Older Adults
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After 30 for men, 50 for women, decrease efficiency
-increase time spent awake in bed -increase time needed to fall asleep -Men more likely to suffer from disturbances -increase disruption in REM |
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increase in norepinephrine might be the reason for
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restless sleep patterns in older adults
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Behavioral issues and sleep patterns
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spend more time in bed to achieve rest, change in habit (go to sleep earlier), Maladaptive patterns in response to altered daily schedules or misconceptions about age-related sleep needs
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What are the Effects of Sleep Deprivation?
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Reduced immunity
Mood alteration Reduced concentration and motivation Increased irritability Lapses in attention Reduced motor skills |
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-Protect cells from harm by foreign substances
-Implicated in aging (Programmed/Pacemaker) |
The Immune System
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What is Immunosenescence?
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Impairment of several lymphocyte activities associated with aging leading to a state of immune dysregulation.
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Aging is associated with a progressive and irreversible decline in immune function; true or false?
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true; but some function maintained
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Immune System functions
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NK cells ->preserved
Humoral B-Cells -> compromised functions, decrease in antibodies cell-mediated T-cells (cytokines, lysis) ->some preservation, decrease in proliferation |
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Depressive Illness (decrease in lymphocyte proliferation)
Bereavement (decrease in lymphocyte proliferation, decrease in NK cytotoxicity) Caregiving (decrease in T-lymphocytes, increase titers to EBV) Personality, Stress and Coping Alcoholism |
psychosocial factors & immunity
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psychological stress and immunity
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negative events and stress -> negative thinking, depression ->Inflammatory cytokines, NK cytotoxicity, CTLs response
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One of most noticeable changes of aging
(after processing speed, physical appearance, vision/ hearing & mobility |
Cardiovascular Function
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developmental forces interact (lifecycle)
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Biological—genetic links, strong component
Psychological—personality (hostility), depression Socio-cultural—diet, exercise |
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pumps blood continuously through circulatory system to provide blood/nutrients to cells; age-related changes limits ability to pump blood to cells
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heart
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2 Major Significant Structural Changes in heart & arteries
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-Contractility of left ventricle wall thus decrease ejection
-Arteries become rigid and narrow—less blood flow |
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Largest chamber—pumps blood to aorta
-Interior wall becomes thicker -Cell death, decrease elasticity (more rigid) -decrease in muscle tissue, increase fat & connective tissue - During emptying of ___, muscle contract less and eject less blood |
Left Ventricular (LV) Contractility
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-emptying phase
-contraction |
Systolic Phase (HBP
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-filling phase
-expansion |
Diastolic Phase (LBP)
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Rigidity & Narrowing of Arteries
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less ability to distribute blood
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Atherosclerosis (age-related changes in arteries)
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arteries become rigid and narrow by fatty accumulation (artery damage)
Aging -> more circulating lipids Immune System -> more inflammatio |
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Aorta (age-related changes in arteries)
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becomes less flexible so greater resistance for blood leaving the LV
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What are some Consequences of changes in cardiovascular function?
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- decrease cardiac output (max. amount of blood delivered from heart to body tissue/minute)
- decrease maximum heart rate (O2 consumption);-Index of inefficient function - Increase blood pressure—some debate; -Younger individuals w/o these changes can have high BP |
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-Heart muscle cells receive insufficient O2 due to blockage of arteries
-Most common in older adults -12% of women, 20% of men -Can lead to congestive heart failure |
Ischemic Heart Disease
type of Cardiovascular Disease |
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-Irregularities in heart beat
-Extra, uneven heart beats -Fibrillation—very rapid & irregular contractions -Cause unknown -Can lead to sudden death |
Cardiac Arrhythmias
type of Cardiovascular Disease |
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-Build-up of fat deposits on arterial wall
-Leads to calcification of wall -Blood clots can get “stuck” and block flow -These blocks cause heart attacks ?angina |
Atherosclerosis
type of Cardiovascular Disease |
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Chest pain associated with lack of blood flow and O2 to the heart
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Angina
type of Cardiovascular Disease |
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-Blood flow drops below normal
-Cells in the heart muscle can die -25% of cases no chest pain—this is more common in older adults |
Myocardial Infarction
type of Cardiovascular Disease |
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-Lack of blood flow to brain due to artherosclerosis
-CVA (accident; CVA) or Stroke: complete cutoff of flow to a brain area -Range in severity from unnoticed to severe impairment |
Cerebrovascular (CV) Disease
type of Cardiovascular Disease |
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as we age blood pressure increases; if it is severe..what is the diagnosis?
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Hypertension (HPTN)
type of Cardiovascular Disease |
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respiratory system
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-Confounds: smoking, pollution, infection
-Interaction of aging & environment |
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Rib cage and air passageways -> stiffer
- decrease CO2 -> O2 exchange -By age 85, 40% decrease lung capacity -Lead to shortness of breath during physical exertion |
respiratory system and aging
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-Smoking & Pollution are major causes
-Bronchial tubes become blocked -Abnormal tissue develops |
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
type of Respiratory Disease |
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-Air sacs are destroyed
-Irreversible, no CO2 O2 exchange -Very debilitating -Caused by smoking |
Emphysema
type of Respiratory Disease |
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shortness of breath and psychological consequences
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-Can be very frightening
-Some unnecessarily withdraw from phys act -Lower sense of competence and well being |
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Aging is not associated with deterioration of sensory systems (taste, smell, touch, vision & hearing); true or false
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false; Senses become less acute—trouble distinguishing details
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Vision and age
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1. Changes in the structure of the eye
2. Changes in the cornea & retina |
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Eye structure aging effects
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Cataracts—spots develop in the lens
-Glaucoma—improper drainage of fluid in the eyes -> increase IO pressure & loss of vision |
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cornea and retina
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Cornea: Becomes less sensitive to light
Retina:Contains receptor cells (rods & cones) |
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progressive irreversible destruction of receptors
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Macular degeneration
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a clouding of the natural lens, the part of the eye responsible for focusing light and producing clear, sharp images.
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cataract
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Which ear structures deteriorate?
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-Ear drum thickens; most common damage
-Inner ear bone deteriorates * noise more affective than aging against hearing |
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How is balance is controlled in the inner ear
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Fluid & small hairs in semicircular canal stimulate nerves for balance
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difficult in hearing high pitch noises due to changes in inner ear
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Presbycusis
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Complaints with tasting food related to loss of capacity in smelling
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smell-> rapid decline after 60's, tase -> Ability to detect tastes gradually decrease, decrease in saliva; dry mouth, swallowing difficult
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What Accounts for Decreasing Sexual Activity with Age?
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lack of partner, men and medical issues, widow, partner illness,
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Changes in Physical Functioning with Age - Men
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-Longer to get erection
-Erection less firm (only complete at orgasm) -More rapid loss of erection after orgasm -Less ejaculatory power -Less rectal and ejaculatory contractions -Longer resolution period |
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Changes in Physical Functioning with Age - Women
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-Change in the shape and flexibility of vagina
-Decreased vaginal lubrication -Less clitoral and labia swelling -Less or lost breast engorgement -Less rectal and orgasmic contractions |
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-Emotional problems/stress
-Urinary tract symptoms -Ever being forced to have sex -Being sexually touched before puberty all related to: |
arousal disorder
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Medication
Oral Transurethral Penile Injection Vacuum Pump Prosthesis |
treatments for erectile dysfunction
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Type A Personality
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Competitive, angry, hostile, aggressive, impatient
Are 2x’s as likely to develop CVD but recover better |
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Type B Personality
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opposite of A
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Older adults average __ diseases and fill about __ prescriptions per year.
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3.5 ; 13
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Psychological Interventions
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Personal (Coping)
Medical (Doc-Pt. Relat.) Social (Support) Life Stress (Stressors) |
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Quality of Life
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(Physical) (Psychological) (Social) (Vocational) (Sexual)
Survival |
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Number of persons in support groups is growing; true or false
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true; reasons can be for Job mobility, retirement relocation
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What rargets CD4+ T-lymphocytes?
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Human Immunodeficiency Virus
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HIV/AIDS Medications
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18+ antiretroviral pills/capsules, prophylactic meds. & vitamins resulting in 6 daily med. times
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Poor adherence associated with rapid development of resistance seen after only __ days of missed dosages
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3
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psychomotor speed
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(reaction time) only universally accepted behavioral change yet discovered
-reflects outcome of sensory memory and attention memory |
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divided attention
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the ability to successfully perform more than one task at the same time
older; more difficulty diving attention among tasks ->complex tasks, not simple |
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simple reaction time
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most used; responding as quickly as possible; hitting a bar when red is shown
slower simple for older adults |
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Making separate responses to separate stimuli as quickly as possible ; hit left or right bar dep. on color
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choice reaction time
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most sig. age related differences
complicated decisions on how to respond based on info presented (driving) men have greater speed...don't know why |
complex reaction time
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neutral networks theory
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age-related neuronal loss (takes more neurons to make decisions)
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information loss model theory
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more info lost as each step of processing (feature extraction, encoding; how we percieve) than for younger adults (deficits in sensory and attention memor)y
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memory
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acquisition, storage, retrieval of information. A memory involves patterns of neuronal activity.
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Where new incoming info is first registered
Involves vision, hearing and touch -info from senses to CNS |
sensory memory
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working memory
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info temporarily available and active
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info held for a period of time ranging from minutes to a lifetime
*most problems we see are in sensory memory and attention memory |
long term memory
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components of working memory
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phonological, visuospatial, central executive
deficit adults: 2nd digit from a serious of additions 2+(3) 5-(2) |
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speech based info, articulation of information (working -> long term) repeating info
deficit: sensory deficits (vision, hearing), reduced processing speed ,deficit in inhibition of irrelevant info ->mental clutter |
phonological store
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manipulate and maintain visual and spatial images (org. to store into long term) learning directions
deficit: sensory deficits (vision, hearing), reduced processing speed ,deficit in inhibition of irrelevant info ->mental clutterpad |
visuospatial scratch
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central executive
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decides how to allocate cognitive resources (rehearse a name, form mental street map)
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episodic memory
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memory for events (word lists)
recall from a list of words |
working memory
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semantic memory
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knowledge (definitions, historical facts)
deficit: complex definitions no difference in simple word def. |
working memory
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procedural memory
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how to perform activities
implicit - info acquired unintentionally explicit - conscious attempt to learn |
working memory
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long term memory (check slides)
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slides
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slides
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intelligence
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combination of tasks to learn new info, perform new task, adapt to new challenges, and be creative
indiv. mental ability overall defining factor of identity remains stable over time |
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intellgence and older adults
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emphasis on defining factor of identity
-->become more vigilant of age-related decrements in intellectual functioning more difficult dealing with very subtle changes that dont make much of a differnece to most individuals |
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two main categories in intelligence
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verbal and nonverbal intelligence
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Thurstone and Mental Ability Theory
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verbal meaning. word fluency, number, spatial relations, memory, perceptual speed, general reasoning
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bone problems
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1. osteoporosis (women *biophosphonates help* susceptible; leading cause of broken bones, late 50's), 2. osteoarthritis (bones under cartilage damaged; athletes, manual laborers; hands, spine, hips, knees) 3. rheumatoid arthritis (severe disease of joints)
arhtroplasty - total replacement of joints |
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fluid crystallized theory
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secondary mental abilities: fluid intelligence & crystal intelligence
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crystal intelligence:
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skills and information acquired thru experience and formal education -> knowledge, judgement, historical facts, word definitions
increase over time |
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fluid intelligence
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- innate ability to integrate and analyze new info ->inductive reasoning, responding to new situations, mazes, puzzles
(on going stimulation->helps brain) decrease over time |
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individual intelligence differences
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health, rontal lobe function, gender (men better on numerical skills, generalized knowldge (crystallized) and spacial orientation, women do better on fluid tasks such as digit symbol, a task requiring close attention to detail)
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personality and intelligence
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self-efficacy creates env. and drive to succeed
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rigidity-flexibility
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cognitive, psychomotor, and attitudinal flexibility
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personality characteristics and intelligence
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realists - accurate declines
optimists - underestimated changes in decline -> denial? had most declines pessimists- overestimated losses -> increased performance or showed no changes...took protective action, compensating? |
50 items, MC, 2 EC
focus on notes and age related changes, study guide sections and major concepts and findings no names, dates, or specifics people in nursing homes (ratio of men and women) life expectancy |
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intelligence and intervention
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interventions can provide *SLIDES*
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wisdom vs. intelligence
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age alone does not foster wisdom
wisdom: awareness of a finite existence, role of culture in shaping people's life; higher level concepts not easily tested by conventional tests provide insight, less likely to judge others, greater appreciation for indiv. diff. in value |
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manage uncertainty as a fact of life
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tolerance of ambiguity
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More CD4 T-lymphocytes are infected and destroyed
Impaired replacement of naïve CD4 T-lymphocytes Less effective anti-HIV immune activity Greater synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines |
HIV in OLDER ADULTS;
(Greater risk of HIV/AIDS disease progression Greater number of opportunistic infections Lower CD4 T-lymphocytes Shorter AIDS free intervals Faster progression to AIDS Higher mortality rates) |
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-Lower mortality rates among light drinkers
-Lower risk of _____ after controlling for smoking and other health habits |
stroke; benefits of alcohol use
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The Information Processing Model
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Incoming info -> based on knowledge base -> stored
* With greater base of knowledge -> more easily info is stored |
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Sensory Memory -> Attention Memory -> Working Memory -> Long Term Memory
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4 stages of Information processing
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