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160 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is condensation, in terms of a speaker’s action?
When the diaphragm moves out, compressing the air causing a slight increase in air molecule density near the diaphragm. Increased density = a local increase in the air pressure.
What is rarefaction, in terms of a speaker’s action?
When the diaphragm moves back, and air molecules spread out to fill in the increased space, causing a lowering of pressure near the diaphragms new location.
What is a pure tone?
A tone that occurs when pressure changes in the air occur in a pattern resembling a sin wave.
What is the relationship between amplitude and perception of sound?
Higher the amp, the louder we think it is.
What is the unit of measurement of sound?
Decibel
What is the fundamental frequency?
The repetition rate of a complex tone. Equivalent to the first harmonic.
What is loudness most correlated to on a graph?
Amplitude
What is Pitch?
Highs and lows
What is tone height?
The perceptual experience of increasing pitch that correlates with increases in a tone’s fundamental frequency.
What is the relationship between a tone chroma and an octave?
Tones separated by octaves have the same tone chroma. In other words, each of the A’s on a keyboard has the same tone chroma, but is separated by an octave. Notes with the same chroma have fundmental frequencies that are multiples of each other.
What is the ‘effect of the missing fundamental’?
The constancy of pitch even with missing fundamental frequency
What is ‘periodicity pitch’
The pitch that we perceive in tones that has had harmonics removed.
What is the range of hearing?
The hearing spectrum. The frequencies that we can hear.
What is the the audibility curve?
It is a curve that depicts our threshold of hearing. Range of hearing is between between 20 and 20,000 Hz and we are most sensitive to about 2,000 and 4,000 Hz.
What is the auditory response area?
The area above the audibility curve all the way up to the threshold of feeling.
What two things does loudness depend on?
Sound pressure and frequency
What are equal loudness curves and what do they help us understand?
-Help to understand the relationship between loudness and frequency.
- indicate the number of decibels that create the same perception of loudness at different frequencies
What is timbre?
The quality of a tone that is the distinguishing factor when two tones have the same loudness, pitch, and duration, but still sound different.
What does timbre depend on?
Attack – buildup of sound at the beginning of a tone
And
Decay – the decrease in sound at the end of the tone
When eliminating attack and decay from a recording, is it easier or harder to tell the sound between different instruments played at the same loudness, pitch, and duration?
HARDER
What are the three basic tasks that the auditory system must accomplish before we can hear?
1. deliver sound stimulus to receptors
2. Transducer this stimulus from pressure changes into electrical signals
3. Process these electrical segnals so they can indicate qualities of the sound source such as pitch, loudness, timbre, and location.
What are the three divisions of the ear?
Outer, middle, and inner
What are pinnae?
The most obvious part of the ear. Helpful in locating sounds via assessing elevation
Explain the progression of sound waves from the pinna inwards
-pinna – auditory canal – tympanic membrane -- ossicles -- cochlea -- basilar membrane --- organ of corti -- hair cells -- brain
Explain some features of the auditory canal
-3 cm long
-keeps tympanic membrane at stable temperatures, due to wax lining
-also enhances intensities of some sounds via resonance, which occurs in the auditory canal when sound waves that are reflected back from the closed end of the canal interact with sound waves that are entering the canal. This interaction reinforces some of the sound’s frequencies with the frequency reinforced the most being called resonant frequency of the canal.
What are the components of the middle ear?
-Ossicles – malleus, incus, stapes. Each transmit vibrations through each other. Stapes then transmits to the oval window.
-middle ear muscles – attached to ossciles and at very high sound intensities they contract to dampen the ossicle’s vibration.
Why are the ossicles necessary? Give three ways they help
Because the density of the medium through which vibrations will flow changes rapidly, air to denser liquid. Thus ossicles:
1. Concentrate the vibrations of TM onto stapes
2. By being hinged to create a lever action that increases sound.
What is the main structure of the inner ear?
Cochlea
What is the cochlea?
Snail like structure filled with liquid. Set into motion by movment of the stapes against the oval window.
How is the cochlea divided?
By the cochlear partition into scala vestibuli and scala tympani
What side is the base of the cochlea located?
At the stapes side.
The apex of the cochlea is located at?
The opposite of the stapes side.
What large organ does the cochlear partition contain?
The organ of Corti
What are some key structures in the Organ of Corti?
1. Hair cells – the cilia which protrude from the tops of the cells are where the sound acts to produce electrical signals.
2. The basilar membrane – supports the organ of corti and vibrates in response to sound
3. Tectorial membrane – extends over the hair cells
What is the cause of transduction?
The bending of inner hair cells in response to vibrations which generates the electrical conversions
The bending of cilia due to the stapes motion results in what motion of the cochlear partition?
Partion moves up and down resulting in two effects:
-sets the organ of Corti in an up and down motion
-causes tectorial membrane to move back and forth
= hari cells bend!
Explain the back and forth movement of hair cells and the opening and closing of ion channels
Ion channels open with movement in one direction and close in another. Ions allow action potential
What is Bekesy’s Place Theory of Hearing?
The frequency of sound is indicated by the place along the cochlea at which the nerve is firing highest.

Thus, low frequencies cause maximal activity in the hair cells near the apex end and high frequencies cause maximal activity at the base end of the membrane.
What are two facts Bekesy noted to determine how the basilar membrane vibrates?
-the base of the basilar membrane is three or four times narrower than the apex of the basilar membrane.
-the base of the membrane is 100 times stiffer than the apex.
What is the envelope of the traveling wave indicate?
The maximum displacement at each point along the membrane. Important because the amount that hair cilia move is how much firing is gonna happen
Name two evidences for Place Theory
Tonotopic maps (orderly map of frequencies along the length of the cochlea) and Auditory masking (masking of one sound by another sound).
Why is the action of outer hair cells called the cochlear amplifier?
Because the elongation and contraction of outer hair cells in live cochlea sharpens its response to specific frequencies
What is conductive hearing loss?
Blockage of sound from reaching the receptors
What is senorineural hearing loss?
Damage to hair cells, auditory nerve, or brain
What is Presbycusis?
Hearing loss due to old age. Most common type of sensorineural hearing loss
-greatest loss is at high frequencies due to long term exposure to high frequency environments
-affects males more severely than females
Noise-Induced Hearing loss damages what organ ?
The organ of corti. Due to loud noise
What is phase locking?
-nerve fibers fire in bursts
-firing bursts happen at or near the peak of the sine wave stimulus
-thus they are ‘locked in phase’ with the sin wave
Inner hair cells are the main source of input to the brain
Inner hair cells are the main source of input to the brain
Each hair cell receives afferent and efferent nerve terminals (not seen in the visual system)
Afferent – from receptor to brain
Efferent – from brain to terminal in the cell
What neural interactions take place in the ear?
- Many spiral ganglion cells contact each inner hair cell – maybe for summation purposes, and maybe temporal coding
- Many outer hair cells that are contacted by a single spiral ganglion cells – for mechanical tuning of basilar membrane (by motile response) must require group effort
- Hair cells receive efferent input from fibers coming from the brainstem
Explain Place, Population, and Temporal Pattern
1. Fibers from a specific part of the basilar membrane are active.
2. Different fibers have different levels of activity. Number of fibers active increases with sound level and frequency tuning widens at higher sound level.
3. Phaselocking directly reflects cycles/time.
What are the two binaural cues
-Interaural time difference
-interaural level difference
What is an acoustic shadow
Obvious
What is the cone of confusion
All points on the cone have equal ITD and ILD
What’s a monaural cue?
Cue that comes from one ear
What is a spectral cue?
Cue based on differences in the distribution (or spectrum) of frequencies that reach the ear from different locations.
-also help in localization of sound.
What is the auditory scene?
The array of sound sources in the environment
What are the principles of auditory grouping?
-Location
-Similarity of Timbre and Pitch ; auditory stream segregation = ability to separate different sound sources; distractor and captor tones; scale illusion or melodic channeling = presnt two sequences of notes simultaneously through earphones
-Proximity in Time – differences in onset and offset time
-Auditory Continuity – sounds that stay continuous
-Experience – melody schemas

LIVE SHARKS ARE PROBABLY EVIL
What is interaural time difference?
The difference in when a sound reaches the left and ight ears. Directly in front or behind is same time. To the sides time distance gets longer.
What is interaural level difference?
The difference in level of sound reaching the left and right ears.
What two physical structures affect the relative intensities of frequencies?
Pinna and Head
What was the Hofman study and what were the results?
Placed a mold in the ears = changed shape of pinna.
Pre control – blue shows actual location of sound sources, red shows average localization of obsever
Day 0 – elevation detection gone. But azimuth and distance is decent
After 19 days – elevation is decent amount, but not as original but closer.
What two mechanisms have been proposed about the physiological representation of auditory space?
-Narrowly tuned ITD neurons – found in superior olivary cortex and inferior colliculus.
-Broadly tuned ITD neurons -
What did Jeffress find about Narrowly tuned ITD neurons?
The receive signals from both ears
-coincidence detectors fire only when signals arrive from both ears simultaneously.
-other neurons in the circuit fire to locations corresponding to other ITDs.
What does research on gerbils indicate about Broadly tuned ITD neurons.
-neurons in the left hemisphere respond best from sound from the right, and vice versa.
-location of sound is indicated by the ratio of responding for two types of neurons
-this is a distributed coding system, unlike the narrowly tuned ITD neurons’ specificity coding
What are the principles of auditory grouping?
-location – a single sound source tends to come from one location and to move continuously; continuous movement of sound helps us perceive the sound of a passing car as originating from a single source.
-similarity of timbre and pitch – similar sounds are grouped together. ; Auditory stream segregation = compound melodic line in music, perceptual grouping by pitch (similarity of pitch).
-proximity in time – sounds that occur in rapid succession usually come from the same source.
-auditory continuity
-experience (familiarity)
-onset/offset times – start or end at different times are likely to come from different sources
-good continuation – sounds that stay constant or change smoothly are usually from the same source
What is auditory stream segregation and what does the Bregman and Campell study show?
Alternating high and low tones are played tighter in two ways
-slowly = perception is hearing high and low tones alternating
-fast = listener hears two streams – one high and one low
What does Diana Deustch’s study show about auditory stream segregation?
Stimuli were two sequences alternating between the right and left ears
Listeners perceive two smooth sequences by grouping the sounds by similarity in pitch.
- Hear scale in right ear going down, and left ear going up, even though the notes composing each of those scales are not coming in just through that one ear.
What is a direct sound ?
One that reaches you through a DIRECT path
What is an indirect sound?
One that reaches you through along paths like b, c, and d.
When you hear sounds outside, it is it direct or indirect?
DIRECT
When you are indoors do you hear direct or indirect sound?
Both, because bouncing off is indirect and direct is well, direct
What is the wessel effect?
About grouping by similarity of timbre.
-when slowly presented, alternating tones of two different timbres produce rising pitch sequence, consistent with their true order or presentation.
-when rapidly presented, tones of each different timbre are heard as separate falling pitch streams
What was the experiment done by Warren et al. ? About good continuation
-tones were presented interrupted by gaps of silence or by noise
-in the silence condition, listeners perceived that the sound stopped during the gaps
-in the noise condition, the perception was that the sound continued behind the noise.
Explain the Dowling experiment
To do with Familiarity (experience)
-used two interleaved melodies (3 blind mice and mary had a little lamb)
-listeners reported hearing a meaningless jumble of notes
-but listeners who were told to listen for the melodies were able to hear them by using melody schema
Explain the Litovsky et. al experiment
-Listeners sat between two speakers in which the right speaker was the lead speaker and the left speaker was the lag speaker
-when sound is first presented first in one speaker and then the other, with enough time between them, they are heard separately, one after another.
-if there is only a short delay between the two sounds, then the sound is perceived to come from the lead speaker. This is the precedence effect.
At slightly longer intervals, two separate sounds were heard, one following the other – called the echo threshold.
What is the precedence effect?
When sound is presented with only a short delay in between the two speakers, the sound is perceived as only coming from the lead speaker.
What is the echo threshold?
When sound is presented with long intervals between the speakers presenting the sound, two separate sounds are heard, one following the other.
What is architectural acoustics?
The study of how sounds are reflected in rooms.
What physical measures are associated with how music is perceived in concert halls
-Reverbation time: time it takes sound to decrease to 1000th of its original pressure = 60 db drop in sound pressure
-Intimacy time: the time between when sound arrives directly from the stage and when the first reflection arrives.
-Bass ratio: the ratio of low:middle frequencies that are reflected from walls and other surfaces
-Spaciousness factor: the fraction of all of the sound received by a listener that is indirect sound.
What is the signal-to-noise ratio?
Level of the teacher’s voice in dB – level of the background noise in the room = SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
What is visual capture? Also known as the ventriloquism effect?
Sound appears to be coming from the apparent visual source of the sound, even if it actually originates from another location.

In the old days without stereophonic sound in theaters, people thought that the sound was coming from the screen and not the speaker at the side.
So if a sound is moving from left to right, and is paired with a person moving from right to left, the perception is that the sound is also moving from right to left alogn with the person
YES
What is the acoustic stimulus or signal?
Pressure changes in the air
What are articulators
Muscles that alter the shape of the vocal tract, thus altering the shape of the change in pressure
How are vowels produced?
By the vibration of vocal cords and change in shape of vocal tract
What are formants?
Formants are the peaks of pressure at a number of different frequencies of vocal tract resonance OR
Changes in articulator shape that cause changes in the resonant frequencies and produce peaks in pressure at a number of frequencies called formants
When a sound occurs just as two moving objects become adjacent to each other, the collision is assumed to be the cause of the sound.
YES
What is a sound spectrogram?
Indicates the pattern of frequencies and intensities over time that make up the acoustic signal.
-Frequency vs. Time
What is the variability problem?
There is no simple correspondence between the acoustic signal and individual phonemes
How are consonants produced?
Constriction of the vocal tract
What are formant transitions?
Rapid shifts in frequency preceding or following formants. to make consonants
What is the basic unit of speech?
The phoneme – the shortest segment of speech that, if changed, would change the meaning of a word.
Because formants are the acoustic signals for the vowels, the formant transitions that precede the formants must be the signal for the consonant
VERY GOOD
What is the variability problem?
There is no simple correspondence between the acoustic signal and individual phonemes. Must overcome coarticulation and variability between different speakers (pitch, accent, speed in speaking, and pronunciation)
What is coarticulation?
Overlap between the articulation of neighboring phonemes. Boot and bat. Di and Du. Brain has to figure out that D sound is there even tho Di and Du have different formants…
What is perceptual constancy?
The fact that we perceive the sound of a phoneme as the same even though the acoustic signal is changed by co-articulation.
What is categorical perception?
When A wide range of acoustic signals results in perception of a limited number of categories of sounds.
What is voice onset time?
The time delay between when a sound begins and when the coval cords begin vibrating.
What is the phonetic boundary?
The VOT when the perception changes from one phoneme to another
When presented with stimulithat are between 0 and 25 the listener says the sound _____
When presented with stimuli that are between 25 and 50, listener says they sound ______
Same

Different
What is the multimodal property of speech?
Our perception of speech can be influenced by info from many senses
What is the McGurk Effect
Although auditory info is the major source of info for speech perception, visual info can also exert a strong influence on what we hear = audiovisual speech perception
Listeners asked to carry out a task that involved paying attention to sounds of familiar speakers vs. unfamiliar speakers… the FFA lights up for
Listening to FAMILIAR speakers
What is the phonemic restoration affect?
Phonemes are restored even when sound is drowned out by a cough.
How did Samuel demonstrate bottom up processing?
By showing that restoration is better when a masking sound, such as the hissing sound produced by a TV set tuned to a non broadcasting channel
Thus phonemic restoration is more likely to occur for a phoneme if the masking sound is similar in frequency to the phoneme being masked.
YES
What is the shadowing technique?
Giving participants some sentences and asking them to repeat it
What are sources of information for spoken word perception?
-Perceiving words in sentences
-Perceiving breaks between words
Explain speech segmentation
The perception of individual words out of a sentence.
Transitional probabilities are?
Probabilities about how likely it is that one sound is followed by another in language
What is broca’s aphasia?
Inability to produce speech fluently. Understanding is intact
Where is broca’s area?
Frontal lobe
Where is wernicke’s area
Where is wernicke’s area
What is wernicke’s area?
Lack of language comprehension
Formants are associated with
Vowels
Formant transitions are associated with
Consonants
What is meant by the term multimodal?
-A property of speech
-our perception of speech can be influenced by information from a number of senses
What is the influence of vision on speech perception called?
-audiovisual speech perception
Calvert et al. used fMRI to measure brain activity and showed that….
The parts of the brain that are activated for lip reading are the very same which are activated for speech perception
Phonemic restoration occurs best when the masking sound’s frequency is similar to
The frequency of the sound being masked.
Does masking a phoneme in longer words yield better restoration? Why?
Yes, because top-down processing helps to incorporate the extra context into the equation to help figure out the missing phoneme.
What is the shadowing technique and what do we learn from it?
Shadowing simply means to repeat the sentence.

-Stimuli were three types of sentences:
Normal grammatical sentences
Anomalous sentences that were grammatical
Ungrammatical strings of words
• - Results showed that listeners were
– 89% accurate with normal sentences
– 79% accurate for anomalous sentences
– 56% accurate for ungrammatical word strings
– Differences were even larger if background noise was present
,
• Experiment by Rubin et al.
• Short words (sin, bat, and leg) and short nonwords (jum, baf, and teg) were presented to listeners.
– The task was to press a button as quickly as possible when they heard a target phoneme.
– On average, listeners were faster with words (580 ms) than non-words (631 ms).
Top down processing, including the knowledge a listener has about a language helps over come the _______ problem
Segmentation
What are some applicable concepts that help you break down sentences into words?
1. Transitional probabilities
2. Statistical learning
3. Indexical characteristics
What are transitional probabilities
The chance that one sound will follow another in a language
What is statistical learning? At what age do kids display it
The process of learning the transitional probabilities of a language.

As young as 8 months show statistical learning
What are indexical characteristics?
The characteristics of the speaker. Tone, age, gender, etc.
When listeners were to indicate when a new word was in a sequence of words, when were they the fastest at doing so?
They were fastest when the same speaker was used for all of the stimuli
Before age 1, how many languages can the infant differentiate?
All
By age one, what has the infant lost? And why?
The ability to distinguish sounds from ANY language. Now the ability is more specificied.

Because the brain becomes tuned to sounds in the environment
If there is no reinforcement from the environment, what two abilities decline?
The production and discrimination.
What is synesthesia?
A condition in which one sensory dimension also gives rise to an experience in a different dimension.
What is Intramodal synestheisa?
Interaction with one sensory modality. For example, color-grapheme (letter/number) synesthesia.
What is intermodal synesthesia?
Interaction across modalities. For example, color-tone synesthesia
When is the typical onset of synesthesia and how is the stability of it throughout life.
Onsets in childhood to early adulthood and the associations are stable over time.
What are the synesthesias you need to know:
-music-color  often have perfect pitch. Because they make the pitch the right color AND sound.
-color-grapheme  fMRI responses to letters invoke responses in V4
-number –form synesthesia = numbers, months of the year, and/or days of the week elicit precise locations in space (for example, 1980 may be "farther away" than 1990), or may have colors, or have a three-dimensional view of a year as a map (clockwise or counterclockwise).
-lexical-gustatory = words/phonemes evoke tastes in mouth
-taste-shape synesthesia= flavors invoke 3D shapes
-Face-color = colors associated with faces
Grapheme-color synesthetes suffer from the ____ effect.
Stroop = it is difficult to ignore the written meaning while trying to name the color of the text
What is the crowding task?
Finding a pattern. Grapheme color synesthetes are great at this task.
What is the ecological approach to perception focused on?
Two things
-emphasizing the moving observer – how perception occurs as a person is moving through the environment
-identifying information in the environment that the moving observer uses for perception.
What is Gibson’s approach to perception
Look for information in the environment (not on the retina) that provides information for perception
Gibson felt that traditional laborarty research on perception was too artificial because observers were not allowed to move their heads and unable to provide an explanation for how pilots used enivironmental information to land planes
What is the optic array?
The contours, textures, surfaces of the environment
What is optic flow?
The movement of elements in a scene relative to the observer.
-flow is greater near the observer
-no flow at distances far from observer
What is the gradient of flow?
A source of information about the observers speed
What is the focus of expansion?
FOE. A name for the absence of flow at the destination point, indicates where the observer is heading.
What is self-produced information?
For example, when a person moves, the optic flow that occurs. Information created by one’s movement that one can use to move further.
Explain why Gibson thought that senses did not work in isolation?
Because vision and hearing and feeling all provide information that help us remain stable.
Visual influence (optic flow) on balance: the Lee and Aronson experiment
13 to 16 month old children placed in “swinging room”
-in the room, the floor was stationary but the walls and ceiling swung backward and forward.
-the movement creates optic flow patterns.
-children swayed back and forth in response the flow patterns created in the room.
-adults show the same response as children when placed in the swinging room
-results show that vision has a powerful effect on balance and even overrides other senses that provide feedback about the body placement and posture
When do people use optic flow information
When traveling in a driving, moving, walking. For example:
Does visual direction strategy involve flow?
NO. observers keep their body pointed toward a target to reach it.
What do optic flow neurons respond best to?
Optic flow
Where are optic flow neurons found in the brain?
The medial superior temporal area (MST)
What brain area helps to navigate through the environment?
The parahippocampal place area.
What is the stroop effect?
It is difficult to override the written meaning of the word when naming the color of the text. Grapheme-color synesthetes suffer from the stroop effect with black letters on a white background
Ramachandran and Hubbard showed that grapheme-color synesthetes are faster at finding the triangle of ‘2’s embedded in a chart of 5’s
the crowding task
What is the crowding task?
Whne placed in the periphery, it is difficult to identify the center number when it is surrounded by other numbers. But if the center number is a different color, it is easier to identify. Grapheme synesthetes are faster.
Number-form syntesthesia is?
Numbers, motnhs of the year, and/or days of the week elicit precise location sin space (for example1980 may be “farther away than 1990). Or may have colors, or have a 3D view of a year as a map.
What is a Lexical-gustatory synestheste?
Person for whom a word and phonemes of spoken language evoke sensations of taste in the mouth
Explain taste-shape synthesia:
Flavors invoke the perception of 3D shapes