Psych 2Yy3 Midterm 1

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Micro-level

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alsoreferred to as the local level, the research population typically is anindividual in their social setting or a small group of individuals in aparticular social context

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Example Of Micro Level Analysis

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Partnership, marriage

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Meso-level

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a population size that falls between the micro- and macro-levels, that are specificallydesigned to reveal connections between micro- and macro-levels.

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Meso-Level Example

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Formal organization

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Macro-level

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generallytrace the outcomes of interactions, such as economic or other resource transfer interactionsover a large population

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Macro Level Example

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Nation

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Theoreticalperspectives

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broad in scope; generalexplanations for a wide range of social behaviours in a variety of situations

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Middle-range theories

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narrowerin scope; more focused explanations of a specific social behaviour

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ThreeFaces of Social Psychology

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Psychological Social Psychology (PSP), SymbolicInteractionism,SocialStructure and Personality (SSP)

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Psychological Social Psychology

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internal psychological processes in the presence of social stimuli

Uses lab experiments

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Normative Social Influence

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Altering Behaviour so webetter fit in with those around us

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Informational Socialinfluence

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We change our behaviourbecause it is assumed others are better informed

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SymbolicInteractionism

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face-to-face interaction,meaning-making processes

Uses: naturalistic observation

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Looking glass self

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the self-image an individual forms by imagining what others think of his or her behavior and appearance.

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Social Structure and Personality (SSP)

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how broad social structuralconditions shape individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviours

Uses : large-scale surveys

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Group Processess

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processes that emerge ingroup contexts (e.g., status, power, justice, legitimacy)

Uses: experimental methods

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3 faces of Sociological Social Psychology

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Group Process, Symbolic Interactionism and SocialStructure and Personality

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Cross Cultural Social Psychology

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cultural differences (and similarities)in social psychological processes

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The Sociological Imagination

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“the ability to see our personal lives in thecontext of the history, culture, and social structure of the larger societywithin which we live”

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SocialNorms

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behavioural guidelines;informal rules that regulate our behaviour in relationships

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Values

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deeply held ideals andbeliefs

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Laws

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formal rules of conduct(presumably reflecting a society’s shared values & norms)

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Status

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“a person’s position in agroup or society that is associated with varying levels of prestige andrespect”

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Roles

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a set of expectations abouthow a person in a given social position should act

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Organizations

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groups that share a commonpurpose and contain a formal set of rules and authority structure”

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Institutions

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“patterns of interaction in which the behaviour of a large group is guided by the same norms and roles

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Culture

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a society or group’s “uniquepatterns of behaviour and beliefs” (p. 21); the norms, roles, &relationships that comprise its institutions

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Elements of culture

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symbols, language, norms, beliefs & values, material artifacts

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Social Psychology

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the systematic study of peoples thoughts, feelings andbehaviours in social contexts

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Sociology

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The systematic study of society


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Conflict Theory

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Focuses on social inequalities and associated with class differences ( MAcro Socio)

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Psychology

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_____ and micro sociology look at how peoples behaviours, thoughts and

feelings are created and modified by the social conditions in which they live

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Sociological social psychology

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focuses on how larger societal contexts and situations impact an individual

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Mead & Thomas responsible for

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Social Interactionism

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Cooley responsible for

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Primary and Secondary Groups

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Primary groups

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small groups of people with whom we have face-to-face contact such as our friends and family

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Secondary groups

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larger and less intimate groups of people

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Simmel Responsible for

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Dyads and Tri-ads

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Symbolic Interactionism

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The study of how people negotiate the meaning of social life during their interactions with other people

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Negotiating Meaning

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eanings we attach to people, other objects and ourselves are negotiated over time and we use language to give meaning to everything in our lives and to the world around us

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Social Structure and Personality

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Focuses on the connections between larger societal conditions and the individual but specifically on the influence of social structure on individuals

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Social Structures

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persisting patterns of behaviour and interaction between people or social positions’

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Group Processes

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Focuses on how basic social processes operate in group contexts

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Sociological imagination

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gives social psychologists the vision necessary to assess al the possible social conditions that may influence individuals thoughts, feelings and behaviours

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five major institutions:

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family, economy, religion, education and government (including media)

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- Social institution

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consists of patterns of interaction in which the behaviour of a large group is guided by the same norms and roles

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Psychological core concepts

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Stimulus: any event that leads to a change in behaviour (e.g., red light)

Response: a change in behaviour induced by a stimulus (e.g., hitting the brakes)

Rewards and punishments

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Operant Conditioning

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Individuals will be more likely to perform a behaviour if it is followed by a reward (positive reinforcement) or by the removal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcement); they will be less likely to perform a behaviour if it is followed by a punishment (positive punishment) or by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus (negative punishment).

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Observational Learning

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Humans learn not only bydirectly experiencing the consequences of behaviour but also by observing them

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Cognitive structure

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an organized set ofcognitions (beliefs, memories, etc.)

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Schema

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the basic sketch of what weknow about a category of people or objects (i.e., their typical features)

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Inattentional Blindness

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a psychological lack of attention that isnot associated with any vision defects or deficits. It may be further definedas the event in which an individual fails to recognize an unexpected stimulusthat is in plain sight

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Cognitive Consistency

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We have a basic motivation to hold ideas that are consistent with one another

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Prediction

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we realize that two of our beliefs arecontradictory (cognitive dissonance), wewill be motivated to change one or more beliefs to resolve the internalconflict

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Attribution

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the processes by which we makeinferences about the causes of behavior or events

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Fundamental attribution error

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the tendency to attribute others’ behaviour to internal dispositions and to ignore external factors

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Psychoanalysis

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The individual and societyare in a perpetual state of conflict

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The id

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the source of individualdrives and instincts (e.g., sexuality, aggression)

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The superego

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the internalization of society (e.g., values, norms)

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Theego

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theactive part of the person that negotiates between these competing (biologicalvs Social) forces

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evolutionary psychology

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humans are motivated, aboveall, to pass on their genes; behaviours that enable us to survive and reproducewill occur more frequently

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SocialExchange Theory

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All relationships areexchange processes involving costs and benefits, and individuals areprofit-maximizers, seeking “the best deal possible”

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Limitations of SE theory

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circular;reductionist; neglects the diversity of human motivation and the socialprocesses by which "rewards” and “costs” are constructed (i.e., meaning)

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2 schools of SI

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Chicago School (Mead, Park, Thomas, Blumer, Becker, Hughes) Iowa & Indiana Schools (Kuhn, Stryker, Stets)

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PragmatistPhilosophy

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Reality is - Dynamic, emergent, pluralistic

Mind and matter are linked through human activity

Truth is relative and created by people as they test the usefulness of ideas through action

The role of science is to To engage with the world and its problems; to seek and apply knowledge that will improve social welfare

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Rationalism

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Reality is - Static, fixed, one-dimensional

Dualistic separation of mind and matter

Truth is absolute (universal laws) and “out there” waiting to be discovered

The role of science is- To pursue knowledge (absolute truth) for its own sake

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symbols

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words or gestures that callforth the same meaning in two or more people

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Themind (SI)

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an internal “conversation”(use and manipulation of symbols); requires a brain, but only arises throughsocial interaction, specifically the process of role-taking

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The Self SI

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a product of social interaction, butalso a process of interaction between “I” and “me”

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Agency

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the extent to which we areable to act and think independent of social constraints

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Premise of Symbolic Interactionism

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1. Meanings arise through social interactionamong individuals

2. People use the meanings they derive frominteraction to guide their own behaviour

3. People employ an interpretive process in theseinteractions (Often multiple interpretations of the same situation)

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Definition of the Situation

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influenced by our socialinteractions in that situation (the exchange of shared meanings), but also byour past experiences, beliefs, values, abilities, etc

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ThomasTheorem:

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when people define situationsas real, those situations become real in their consequences

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NegotiatingMeaning

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Nothinghas a definite meaning it can always be negotiated

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Socialaction

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behaviour that takes accountof others and is guided by what they do

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Joint(collective) action

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hings people do together; involves coordination by multiple people at the same time

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Chicago School of SI

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First wave (early 20th century): George Herbert Mead, W.I. Thomas, Robert Park

Second wave (post-WWII): Herbert Blumer, Howard Becker, Everett C. Hughes

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Chicago School of SI

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Goal: to understand the social processes in a given situation

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Chicago School of SI

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Methods: qualitative

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Chicago School of SI

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Emphasis on human agency: individuals have the ability to change or maintain society

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Chicago School of SI

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Society: a process of socialinteraction involving the exchange of symbols (shared meanings)

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Chicago School of SI

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Relationships are fluid, emergent, and dynamic( that why its difficult to predict how relationships will turn out)

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II school of SI

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Manford Kuhn, SheldonStryker, Jan Stets

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II school of SI

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Once there is a shared interpretation (consensus about the “definition of the situation”), it tends to remain for some time

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II school of SI

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Reality is sociallyconstructed but relatively stable

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II school of SI

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Usual method: quantitative

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Dramaturgical Perspective

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Conceives of social life asa theatre in which we are all actors performing roles and trying to manipulateothers’ impressions of us

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Scenes

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situations in whichinteraction takes place

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Acts

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sequences of behaviour(“role performances”) that unfold in a scene

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Scripts

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general ideas about thetypical sequence of behaviours in a scene (e.g., dating script)

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Regions

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areas of role performance

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Frontstage

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public performance,appearance & manner

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Backstage:

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behind-the-scenes,preparation & reflection

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Face

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an image of self presented in terms of approved social characteristics

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Savingface

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the process whereby anactor’s preferred self-image is publicly sustained (by self and others)

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Teamwork

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the process whereby actorscollaborate to maintain a certain “definition of the situation”

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ETHNOMETHODOLGY

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“People live under the illusion that they share meanings with othersand act on the basis of that illusion. All that people really share is theassumption that their meanings are shared.

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Structuralist Social Psychology

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how broad social structural conditions shape individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviours

USes large scale surveys

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Three key principles of SSP

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Components principle

Proximity principle

Psychology principle

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Emile Durkhiem

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Society is a reality sui generis / society is a real thing on it own

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts

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Egoisticsuicide

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occurs when there is a lackof social integration

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Anomicsuicide

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when social norms areambiguous, perhaps due to rapid social change

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Altruisticsuicide

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when there is an extremelyhigh degree of integration

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Fatalisticsuicide:

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when norms are too stifling

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Karl Marx

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History is actually a story of the power struggle between different subsects of society for materialistic things

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Max Webber

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Bureaucratic structure shapes personality, makes us “clogs in a machine”

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Class:

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relationship to the means of production (e.g., capitalists vs. workers)

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Status MW

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level of prestige or esteem associated with a given social position (e.g., socioeconomic status, race, gender, age, sexual orientation

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Power: MW

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ability to get what you want, despite resistance (e.g., the ruling political party has more power to make the laws)

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Socialstructure

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“persisting patterns ofbehaviour or interaction between people or social positions”

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Componentsprinciple(Macro):

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components of society (broadstructural conditions) shape our immediate social environments and thereby ourindividual thoughts, feelings, and behaviours

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Proximityprinciple ( Meso):

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immediate social environments more directly affect individual thoughts, feelings and behaviours (and may alter effects of structural components)

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Psychologyprinciple ( Micro )

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how individuals perceive andinternalize their social experiences & conditions

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Rolestrain:

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:difficulty fulfilling expectations in some or all roles, due to too manyroles, conflicting roles, etc.

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SocialNetworks:

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configurations ofrelationships between individuals and groups

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What were Kohns two major criticisms of social psychology as it was then practised?

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- Focuses too much on immediate social environments and neglects the impact of larger social structures

- When social psychologists do consider social structure, they tend to reduce it to “a matter of individual perception” (p. 30)

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What, in Kohns view, should be the goal of (sociological) social psychology

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the goal of social psychology should be “to explicate the processesby which people’s positions in larger social structures affect the conditionsof their lives and, thereby, their personalities and behavior”

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Homans

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all social behaviour can beexplained by a set of general propositions, expressed as mathematical formulae

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Rationality Proposition:

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“The frequency with which aperson engages in an action depends on the value of the outcome to him or herand the probability that the action will lead to the outcome”

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Bales

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Some people are rewarded morethan others because they contribute more (resources) tointeractions/relationships

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Social Forms = the most general forms of interactions

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Competition

Love

Play

Domination

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Four basic social processes

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Power Status Justice Legitimacy