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102 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Charles Bell:
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Sensory nerves enter posterior roots of the spinal cord and motor nerves emerge from anterior roots. This separated nerve physiology into a study of sensation and movement with empirical evidence.
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Francois Magendie:
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Discovered, in modern times, the distinction between sensory and motor nerves
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Bell-Magendie law
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Sensory nerves carry impulses from the sense receptors to the brain, and motor nerves carry impulses from the brain to the muscles and glands of the body
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Johannes Müller:
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*Devised the doctrine of specific nerve energies. Each sensory nerve, no matter how it is stimulated, releases an energy specific to that nerve. *Helped out the physiology chair, We are conscious of sensations, not of physical reality.
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Adequate stimulation:
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A nerve sensitive to specific sense (audio nerves to sound)
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vitalism:
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life can’t just be explained by physical and biological forces, opposite of materialism
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Hermann von Helmholtz: *
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Greatest scientist of 19th century *Disagreed with Müller’s belief in vitalism. Instead, he accepted that living organisms were complex machines consisting of material systems…everything in human behavior COULD be explained in physical reactions
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Principle of conservation of energy:
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energy is not lost or created, just transferred
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Theory of perception:
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sensations=raw elements of conscious experience. Perceptions=sensations after they are given meaning by one’s past experiences
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Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision
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different receptors for different wavelengths. (Our primary colors are 1, 2, 3…red, green, and blue-violet! Three colors=trichromatic theory of color.)
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Ewald Hering:
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*phenomenology (study of experimental phenomenon). *More subjective. *Concerned with experience not perception
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Christine Ladd-Franklin:
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*Used evolutionary theory to explain how color developed in humans. *Peripheral vision was more primitive than foveal vision
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Phrenology:
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*bumps and depressions on the skull determine the strengths and weaknesses of various mental faculties (Gall). *Phrenologists believed in Localization: localized functions in the brain
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Pierre Flourens:
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*Brain’s ability to overcome damage: surrounding areas can take over. *Brain is localized and integrated, but NO localized functions/pieces. Hemispheres function as a unit.
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Paul Broca:
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*Found evidence that part of the left frontal lobe of the cortex (outer, grey matter) is specialized for speech production or articulation. (Broca’s area)
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Carl Wernicke:
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Discovered an area on the left temporal lobe of the cortex associated with speech comprehension (Wernicke’s area)
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Kinesthesis:
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Sensations caused by muscular activity (Weber studied this and touch)
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Two-point threshold
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–the smallest distance between two points of stimulation on a human body in which the one reports sensing two points instead of one (Weber)
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Just noticeable difference (jnd):
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the sensation that results if a change in stimulus intensity exceeds the differential threshold (how much it takes for you to notice the change between two)
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Weber’s law:
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Just noticeable differences correspond to a constant fraction of a standard stimulus. *The first quantitative law in psychology’s history of the systematic relationship between physical stimulation and a psychological experience
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psychophysics:
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study of relationship between mind and body
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Absolute threshold:
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lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected
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Differential threshold:
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the amount that stimulation needs to change before one can detect a difference in that stimulation (initial sensing)
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Wilhelm Wundt:
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The founder of experimental psychology as a separate discipline and of the school of voluntarism, Set up a laboratory in Leipzig. *experimentation can be used to study the basic processes of the mind but not higher mental processes, did NOT believe in free will
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Voluntarism:
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through the processes of apperception, one can direct his attention to whatever he wishes
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Thought meter:
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showed that humans think one thought at a time but can switch from one thought to another in 1/10 of a second W.W
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2 major goals for experimental psychology:
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discover basic elements of thought; discover laws by which mental elements combine into more complex mental experiences W.W
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2 basic types of mental experience:
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sensations; feelings. W.W
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principle toward the development of opposites:
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long exposure to one type increases tendency to seek opposite experience W.W
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Völkerpsychologie:
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10-volume work about group psychology
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Edward Titchner:
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*Brought psychology to America *Structuralism *Started own psych club w/o women, later gave first woman doctorate (Margaret Floy Washburn) *Disagreed with Wundt in explaining conscious experience, just wanted to describe it
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Franciscus Cornelius Donders:
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Dutch physiologist *measured reaction time of mental acts, Wundt used his research
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Structuralism:
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founded by Titchener. *Goal is to describe the mind. *Extinct, today known as cognitive psychology
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Franz Clemens Brentano:
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Focus on processes of the minds, not structures (opposite of Titchener) *This is know as Act psychology *Felt that the proper study of the mind should emphasize the mind’s processes rather than its contents (what it DID, not what was IN it) *intentionality: mental acts always intend something , Phenomenological introspection
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Phenomenological introspection:
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(human experience with introspection) Share your experience with me, I want to know your experience as you perceive it.
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Introspection:
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Reflection on one’s subjective experience. Three types: Wundt, Titchener, Brentano
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Carl Stumpf:
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First chair of psychology at the university of Berlin *Mental phenomena vs. conscious elements *Clever Hans phenomenon: a horse that could answer questions by stomping. Was following master.
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Edmund Husserl:
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Father of existential phenomenology and pure phenomenology *Thought that those who believe psychology should be an experimental science make a mistake by taking the natural sciences as their model
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existential phenomenology
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(truth is subjective, the meanings of conscious experience
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pure phenomenology
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(understand the whole experience)
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Hans Vaihinger:
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All we ever experience directly are sensations and relationships among them, so we can only be certain of sensations
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Herman Ebbinghaus:
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*Studied higher order mental processes *Systematically studied learning and memory, unaware of Wundt’s belief that one can’t experimentally study higher mental processes
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Jean Lamarck:
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His ideas are rejected today in Biology because he believed in acquired characteristics that were inherited by our parents, the idea that the environment can cause changes in our bodies and be passed on to our offspring, Epigenetics
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Epigenetics:
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Environment can turn on/off genes. Can control whether a gene is expressed or not expressed. Environment can change us and those traits be passed on.
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Herbert Spencer:
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most well-known for Social Darwinism *how evolution influences social behavior (assumption is that evolution is real) *Spencer’s view of evolution: everything begins as an undifferentiated whole *Father of evolutionary psychology *applied evolution to everything in the universe *. Spencer’s application of his notion of survival of the fittest to society came to be called Social Darwinism *government programs designed to help the weak and poor would only interfere with evolutionary principles and inhibit a society on its course toward increased perfection
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Spencer-Bain Principle:
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(operant conditioning) the contention that the frequency or probability of some behavior increases if it is followed by a pleasurable event, and decreases if it is followed by a painful event
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Naturalism:
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the scientific approach to the natural world *apply naturalism to humanity? Problems. Evolution can’t be applied social behavior
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Andrew Carnegie
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believed social Darwinism replaced traditional religion
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Darwin’s Theory of Evolution.
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Two elements: 1. Among the offspring of any species, there are vast individual differences, some of which are more conducive to survival than others. This is survival of the fittest, a.k.a. natural selection. Environment presents a certain scenario and animals that have adaptability trait will change and strongest genes survive 2. Evolution then results from the natural selection of those accidental variations among members of a species, random mutations in the genome
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Sociobiology:
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if you are fit, you will pass on those genes to offspring
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Sir Francis Galton:
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cousin of Charles Darwin. contributions to idea of correlation: noticing relationships between things. because sensory acuity is mainly a function of natural endowment, intelligence is inherited. Then, one would expect to see extremes in intelligence run in families. focused on intelligence in mental testing. * By visually displaying his correlational data in the form of scatterplots, Galton found that he could visually determine the strength of a relationship
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Karl Pearson:
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devised a formula that produced a mathematical expression of the strength of a relationship. Called “ coefficient of correlation” (r).
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Binet-Simon scale of intelligence:
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test for children: to distinguish between children with mental deficiencies and children without
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Henry Herbert Goddard:
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translated Binet’s intelligence test into English *extreme nativist *as a result of his efforts, number of immigrants into US was reduced
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Lewis Madison Terman:
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Revised Binet’s test of intelligence, making it more compatible with US culture *along with Goddard and Yerkes created Army Alpha and Army Beta tests *gifted children tended to become healthy, gifted adults
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Leta Stetter Hollingworth:
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concerned with developing educational strategies to ensure development of well-gifted students *rejected the belief that women achieve less than males do *women are not intellectually inferior to men *emphasized differences in social opportunity
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Robert M. Yerkes:
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suggested that Psychology could help in war effort *largely ineffective
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Four early stages of US psychology:
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1. Moral and mental philosophy (ethics, divinity, philosophy, matters of the soul. Psychology existed for the sake of logic, logic for the sake of God) 2. Intellectual philosophy (Psychology left theology and philosophy and became a separate discipline.)3. US Renaissance (left religion and philosophy, became empirical science. Emphasized individual differences, adaptation to the environment, and practicality) 4. US Functionalism (science practicality, evolution, functionalism)
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Thomas Reid
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said sensory information could be accepted at face value. The existence and nature of God did not need to be proved logically because one’s personal feelings could be trusted. Perception, memory, imagination, association, attention, language, and thinking. Defined as the science of the human soul
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Functionalism:
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Under the influence of Darwin, the school of functionalism stressed the role of consciousness and behavior in adapting to the environment. *Versus structuralism, where goal of psychology was to understand the structure of the mind, and the primary research tool was introspection. *Assumptions concerning the mind were derived from evolutionary theory, the goal was to understand how the mind and behavior work in aid *research tools: introspection, the study of animal behavior, the study of the mentally ill.
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Characteristics of Functionalistic Psychology:
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opposed sterile research for elements of consciousness *wanted to understand function of mind rather than describe it *wanted psychology to be practical, not pure; sought to apply findings to improvement of personal life, education, industry *urged broadening to include animals, children, abnormal humans *interest in the “why” of mental processes led to motivation *accepted both mental processes and behavior as legitimate subject matter *more interested in what made organisms different from one another than similar *Influenced by William James
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William James:
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influenced by Darwin. *Represents transition between European psychology and US psychology. *planted seeds for functionalism *pragmatism *almost everything in Principles can be seen as a criticism of Wundt *stream of consciousness *ideo-motor theory of behavior (idea of a certain action causes that action to occur)
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Pragmatism:
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the belief that if an idea works, it is valid (William James) * truth is not out there in a static form waiting to be discovered as many of the rationalists maintained
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Hugo Münsterberg:
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*positivistic *applied psychology (Clinical, Forensic, Industrial) read. 320-321
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Mary Whiton Calkins:
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B.F. Skinner *studied paired-associate technique (investigating verbal learning. Pairs of stimulus material are presented, later asked to recall second when shown first) *disliked cold, impersonal nature of such psychology and switched emphasis to self-psychology *First woman elected president of APA in 1905
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Granville Stanley Hall:
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First psych lab at John Hopkins *Founder of APA *invited Freud to speak at university, which helped psychoanalysis receive recognition
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Recapitulation theory:
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pro-evolutionary approach *Hall *All stages of human evolution are reflected in the life of an individual
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Francis Cecil Sumner:
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First African American to receive PhD in psychology *Argued for segregation higher education
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Kenith Bancroft Clark:
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*Desegregated schools *First African American president of APA
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Edward Lee Thorndike:
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*Pioneer in work *Experiments with animals *marks transition between schools of functionalism and behaviorism *Puzzle box
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John B. Watson
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(ch. 12 but in review list): *founded behaviorism
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Mental illness:
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abnormal behavior *harmful *unrealistic thoughts and perceptions *inappropriate emotions *unpredictable behavior
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Early Explanations of mental illness:
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*Biological (body malfunction) *Psychological (mental stress) *Supernatural (inflicted by some mortal/immortal being. Spiritual possession)
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Early treatment of mental illness:
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bleeding people (balance humors) (more listed below)
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Psychoanalysis
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(Psychological approach) *talk therapy
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Trepanation:
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(supernatural approach) The technique of chipping or drilling holes in a person’s skull, presumably used by primitive humans to allow evil spirits to escape; relieve pressure in head
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Other supernatural treatments:
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exorcism, magical rituals, incantations
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Hippocrates:
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(Biological approach) *used rational, naturalistic model of medicine. *Essence of body is out of balance and needs to be restored. *discovered hysteria: believed to be caused by a wandering uterus. More women diagnosed, thus created a sexism in mental illness/witchcraft *approach also used by Sumerians from Shem
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Galen:
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physician to several Roman Emperors *tried to discover how the body worked together *worked with Gladiators *book was main text for human anatomy for 1400 years
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Witch hunting:
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1484, Pope Innocent VIII issued official document to allow persecution of witches *also in 1750 *mentally ill people thrown in prison
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Malleus Maleficarum:
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best selling book on how to hunt witches
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Johann Weyer:
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claimed that those labeled as witches were actually mentally disturbed people
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Criteria for judging abnormal behavior:
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a sign of sinfulness
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Philippus Paracelsus:
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tried to keep the supernatural out of medicine
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Philippe Pinel:
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associated with the Bicetre asylum in France *brought humane treatment to the mentally ill *released prisoners from their chains *occupational therapy *favored bathing *segregated different types of patients *mild purgatives as physical treatments *argued against punishment and exorcism
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Benjamin Rush:
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*first US psychiatrist *realized mentally ill people were not treated fairly
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The three reasons for continued poor treatment of the mentally ill:
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ignorance, fear, and the belief that mental illnesses are incurable
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Emil Kraepelin:
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published a list of categories of mental illnesses, helped reduce fear *identified Alzheimer’s disease
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Lightner Witmer:
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applied principles of psychology to help people in a practical manner *established first clinic “Clinical Psychology” *Three main contributions: 1. Idea that scientific psychology can be utilized to help people 2. Help can be provided through Clinical psychology 3. Clinical psychology should be research-oriented
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Thomas Szasz:
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labeling theory. *By telling someone they have an illness, they have it. Labeling – self fulfilling prophecy, lives up to the label
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Franz Anton Mesmer:
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*animal magnetism: a force believed is evenly distributed throughout the bodies of healthy people and unevenly distributed in bodies of unhealthy people. *used what he thought were his strong magnetic powers to redistribute the magnetic fields of his patients, thus curing them of their ailments
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Charcot:
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*Thought a psychological cause was behind hysteria *used hypnosis
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What best describes psych today?
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very diverse and fragmented but peaceful. We are addressing the same issues we have always addressed.
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Eclecticism:
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acceptance of different viewpoints
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Divisions in the APA:
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53 divisions
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PsyD:
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*Collingridge doesn’t like it *more counseling oriented, applied without psychology. Less research practicum. Not respected. Cop- out. PhD preferred.
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Current status of psychology today:
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some consider science, some call it pseudo science. Tension between pure science and applied psychology
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Postmodernism:
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opposes the search for abstract. Reality is created based on personal, historical, and cultural context. We interpret based on our own eyes (601)
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Bertrand Russell: .
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(quote on page 304) *in science we only know certain things, just remember that it doesn’t explain everything. Theology tells us we have knowledge where in fact we are ignorant
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Irreducible complexity
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idea that there are some mechanisms in the natural world that are too intricate and complex to have been created by chance, functions added over time
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Vera-similitude:
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truth likeness idea that we are always coming up with things and getting closer to the truth not there. (collingridge-ism)
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