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72 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Top 5 elective surgeries in 2005:
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Liposuction 455,000
Breast augment 364,000 Eyelids 231,000 Nose job 200,000 Tummy tuck 169,000 Total # of all plastic surgery procedures has risen 444% since 1997 (surgical + nonsurgical). In 2005, 11.4 million procedures in all. Total spent: $12.4 billion. |
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Tobacco-related illnesses responsible for over 420,000 US deaths/yr. Creates direct medical costs of $50 billion/yr.
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In US, approx. 25% of adults smoke (down from 50% in 1960s).
- ≤ HS education, 30%; > HS, 19%. - 14% of high schoolers smoke regularly, 30% occasionally. |
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Tobacco Facts
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Tobacco industry spent $4 billion/yr for advertising before recent tobacco settlements, now spends $6 billion/yr, even though the settlements restricted some advertising practices and outlets.
Tobacco is still the most heavily advertised product, period. |
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Timeline of tobacco advertising on TV:
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1940s-1960s tobacco cos. sponsored/owned many TV programs; 8-10% of all ads on TV.
- 1964 Surgeon General’s report of tobacco and health established causal link with cancer. - 1967 FCC grants anti-smoking messages airtime under the Fairness Doctrine. Supposed to be 3 tobacco ads-to-1 PSA ratio, more like 10-1. - 1971 Jan 1, cigarette ads banned from TV (along with free airtime for antismoking PSAs). |
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Straub 1990s study: found several significant positive predictors of nonsmoking teens’ intent to smoke:
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recognition of brands in ads (exposure)
- willingness to wear tobacco logo clothing - stress level - having friends who smoke - disagreement with anti-smoking PSAs - father who smokes |
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Smoking in TV and Movies
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On TV, only 2.5% of characters are shown smoking.
In movies, 70-80% of leading characters smoke (3x as many in US population). These appear for dramatic effect, as well as paid product placements. |
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Sly study 2002: the likelihood of remaining a nonsmoker was predicted by
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current anti-smoking attitude,
self reports of truth.org ads effects, and # of truth.org ads recalled. |
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Tv and Alcohol Numbers
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Alcohol related to 100,000 deaths in US per year; involved in half of 40,000 fatal auto crashes.
Approximately 50% of US population drinks occasionally, but 5% of US population consumes 50% of all alcohol sold. About 66% of 14 yr olds, and 90% of HS seniors admit to trying alcohol. About 14% of 14 yr olds and 28% of HS seniors admit to heavy drinking (5 drinks in a row) sometime in the past two weeks. |
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Evidence that alcohol advertisements influence children’s and teens’ desire to drink:
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in early 1990s, 80% of 5th & 6th graders could identify that Spuds Mackenzie was mascot of Budweiser.
- another study of 8-12 yr olds found they could name more brands of beer than US presidents. |
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Marlatt – 1980s, showed simple disinhibition effect of drinking models.
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Showed drinking or nondrinking models in a videotape to college Ss just prior to a wine-tasting session.
Those who saw drinking models consumed more wine in the tasting session. |
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Content studies of alcohol drinking in TV programs:
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In early 1970s, drinking appeared about 6 times/hr, mostly by major characters, and was higher in soap operas than prime time programs.
Rate increased to 10 times/hr in 1980s. Rarely was any negative consequence shown, maybe a hangover shown occasionally; drinking was rarely disapproved of by other characters. |
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In mid-1980s, the public health community appealed to the industry about level of drinking shown.
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An organization of writers, producers, and directors responded as part of the prevailing “Just say no” and MADD campaigns, and agreed to draw up voluntary guidelines for responsible alcohol content in programs. Rate of drinking decreased back to about 6 times/hr.
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Potts 2006 study of MPAA movie ratings
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2x more drug use and language in PG-13 and R movies since 1998; ~25%.
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Atkin 1970s study of high vs. low exposure to OTC drug ads, 5th-7th graders;
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found H > L differences:
Estimates of illness in society Belief that drugs are very helpful Belief that results occur in minutes Concern about future illness Plans to take OTC drugs No relation to illegal drug attitudes/beh. |
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Television and Safety: Unintentional Injury
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Unintentional injury is leading cause of death in US between ages of 1 & 34:
- 92,000 deaths/year (1997), - deaths and disablement cost $3 billion/yr. - Fatal injury causes: motor vehicles 47%; homicide 13%; suicide 10%; drowning 9%; fire 7%; falls 2%; other 13%. |
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Greenberg & Atkin, 1970s, content study of driving practices in prime time TV programs
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approx 1 scene/hour of dangerous driving;
negative consequences occurred in less than 1% of these scenes; damage to car in 5% of scenes; positive outcomes (escape pursuers, impress others, emotional satisfaction) in 9% of scenes. |
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Potts & Henderson, 1991, content study of physical injury in children’s programs
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overall, 15 injuries/hour;
weekday cartoons, 46/hr; Saturday AM, 24/hr; prime time, 3/hr; educational, 1/hr. Typical child viewer sees 340/wk, 17,500/yr |
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Potts 1994 study, Effects of risky behaviors of TV characters on children’s risk-taking:
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Measure: self-reported willingness to take risks in several common situations;
Ss got RT pretest, then saw either 1) high-risk TV programs (edited cartoons or other kidvid), or 2) low-risk programs (all approx. 7 minutes); then got risk-taking posttest. |
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Potts et al 1995 content study of safety behaviors in children’s TV programs
Examined safety behaviors of characters and consequences in child and general audience programs; Measured evasive safety actions, verbal warnings to others, use of safety equipment. |
Results:
Approximately 13 safety behaviors/hr; 45% in program plot, 55% in commercials. Most behaviors (80%) were precautionary, i.e., no imminent threat of danger; Most (80%) were irrelevant to children, i.e., pertained to adult activities and situations; Most (82%) had no consequences, were not “tested,” 11% were successful at preventing injury, 5% unsuccessful. Conclusion: many appropriate safety behaviors appear in programs and commercials, but efficacy of such behaviors not salient. |
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Potts & Swisher 1998 experimental study of effects of safety models on children’s risk-taking and hazard identification.
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Three TV stimuli shown:
An “educational” safety program; central focus on safety behaviors, unsafe behs, consequences; A TV cartoon with incidental safety content, showed safety behs (seatbelts, life jackets) in background; or Same TV cartoon w/o any safety content. Measures: risk-taking, hazard ID. Conclusion: modeled safety behaviors of TV characters can inhibit risk-taking of child viewers, and make them more cognizant of hazards; Overt safety behavior demonstrations are necessary for changing risk-taking, but even minor safety content is sufficient to change awareness of hazards. |
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Morality
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is defined as the values, standards, and other ideological concepts that a society judges to be “right” or “wrong.”
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The media industry is often accused of
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depicting the value systems of the NY and LA cultures, perspectives, etc., which may be discrepant from many parts of society; e.g., level of backlash against Janet Jackson’s breast, homosexual content, etc..
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which programs air and remain on the air are also determined by
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ratings, i.e., what the audience wants to see (given what is available).
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Similarly, the industry is accused of
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irresponsibly shaping social values, while they claim they only reflect society.
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Religion
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Although the majority of the US population identify themselves with some religion, very few characters in fictional TV programs or movies have any identifiable religious affiliation.
Those few instances may only serve as dramatic/comedic device, i.e., money-oriented Jews, guilty and/or repressed Catholics, etc. |
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Infrequent appearance of religious characters may reflect writers/producers fear of
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offending those not mentioned, or else reflect nonreligious views of media industry.
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Televangelism
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Serious” religion, i.e., broadcast services, televangelism, have among the lowest ratings of any program type. The public clearly gets the religion it desires from other sources, i.e., church attendance.
Televangelism scandals of 1980s further suppressed interest in many such programs. |
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Family values
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how families are portrayed on TV
While many traditional families shown (Leave It to Beaver, Father Knows Best), TV often used nontraditional families. In 1950s-70s, many single-father families appeared, which were extremely rare in society; e.g., Bachelor Father, My Three Sons, Andy Griffith, The Courtship of Eddie’s Father. In all cases, wife died; it was not acceptable to present divorce. |
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Another pattern is that families on TV will
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show exceptional “solidarity,” regardless of degree of dysfunction.
Most mental health experts recommend that divorce and/or removal of children from an dysfunctional home is preferable to keeping family intact. |
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TV and adolescent morality – experimental studies by Bryant & Rockwell 1994
Study 1: 13 & 14 yr-old teens watched 3 hours of 1980s “evening soaps” (Dallas, Dynasty, etc.) for 5 consecutive nights. For some, all episodes involved unmarried sex plot themes; for some, married sex themes; and for some, nonsexual themes. 3 days later, were shown 15 new clips of sexual indiscretions/impropriety, rated each on 10-pt scale of “how bad it was,” and “how wronged was the victim.” |
Study 2: same procedures, but also selected teens based on measures of
active (critical) vs. passive viewing style, and open vs. closed family communication style. Results: similar to Study 1, except that in unmarried sex condition, teens who had active viewing style and open family communication, rated scenes of sexual indiscretion as worse and victim more wronged than in Study 1, i.e., their judgments similar to those in married and nonsex episode groups. |
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Summary
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TV sexual activity can affect teens’ moral judgments after only a few hours of viewing;
some viewer and family characteristics can mitigate TV effects on moral judgments. |
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Music Video Content and Approval of Antisocial Behavior: Hansen & Hansen ’90
Can exposure to antisocial behavior and themes in music videos change viewers’ perceptions/judgments/acceptance of other antisocial behavior? |
College Ss exposed to music videos with or without antisocial themes, then witnessed another student give obscene gesture to experimenter. Ss then evaluated the other student, e.g., did they approve-disapprove of his actions, etc.
Results: those who saw antisocial video showed less disapproval of the student’s antisocial gesture than those who saw neutral videos. Interpretation: Likely is observational learning function of norm-setting; models can define norms for behavior. Is impressive that a single exposure of only a few minutes can affect judgments of propriety/acceptability. |
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pornography
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designed to arouse sexually, synonyms erotica, sexually-explicit
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obscenity
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causing disgust, repugnance.
Most media-related regulations use terms referring to obscenity or indecency, not pornography per se. FCC regulations defer to “local community standards” to define what is acceptable. |
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History
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As long as there have been media, there have been sexual depictions.
Prehistoric cave drawings & carvings; Greek plays, e.g., Lysistrata; Sexual literature, Kama Sutra, etc. |
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Timeline of “modern” sexual media
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Earliest photography depicted
nudes, sexual activity; Through 1970s, sexual media primarily “men’s” magazines, 8mm films & peep shows, adult movie theaters; Until recently, sexual media was an “underground” industry, subject to societal disapproval and prosecution. |
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1950s-1970s
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“sexploitation” movies, contained much nudity and simulated sex, shown in theaters, but always had a “morality” message (“redeeming quality”), in order to avoid prosecution.
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1960s-1980s
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led to dramatic increase in availability of sexual media, e.g., adult theaters, bookstores, wide distribution of print media, e.g., Playboy, Hustler, etc.;
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porn facts
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Advent of VCR revolutionized porn industry via video rental and in-home viewing for the consumer, and low production costs for the industry;
- The current US adult porn industry profits estimated at $5-12 billion/yr; 10,000+ new video titles/yr, represent 20% of all video rentals. |
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Internet porn
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4.2 million porn websites
(12% of all websites); 372 million individual web pages; 68 million porn search engine requests daily (25% of all search engine requests); 2.5 billion porn-related spam emails sent daily (8% of all emails). |
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Sex in broadcast TV
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content parameters loosely defined by FCC;
dramatic increase (1000s%) in sexual content during 1970s-present; incl. brief nudity, implied sex and innuendo, sexual dialogue; U.S. TV still much more conservative than in many other countries. |
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Recent TV sex content studies
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2/3 of all US TV programs in ‘99-’00 had some sexual content;
Most were from movies, sitcoms, soaps; Most sexual content is verbal; Mostly presented in humorous context; |
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Cable & satellite TV content not regulated by FCC:
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Popularity of pay-channel “soft core” R-rated sexual programming (HBO, Cinemax movies; Playboy channel, etc.);
States can regulate sale/transmission of programming, and thus some states allow in-home reception of explicit XXX programming, while others (incl OK) do not. |
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Major question is whether exposure to sex in mass media causes any changes, harmful or otherwise, in viewers.
Regardless of any evidence for effects, sexual content is a major political/moral issue, and policies are created/debated largely without scientific input. |
Surveys indicate that teens cite TV just behind parents & peers as sources of sex info.
Likely cultivation effects, especially with few other sources of romantic/interpersonal aspects of sex. TV sex may stimulate useful sex discussion, but maybe too early. |
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Baran 1976 study
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Teens who watched the most TV,
and believed it to be realistic, were the least satisfied with their own sex lives; Suggests the glamorous, sexy world seen on TV is not likely experienced by typical teenager; upward social comparison. |
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Rand/NIH 2003 study
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1700 12-17 yr old teens surveyed about sexual activity, parent relations, TV viewing, etc.;
Tested twice, 1 yr apart; Found that heavy TV viewing virgins were twice as likely to initiate sexual intercourse in the following year, compared to light viewing virgins. |
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Donnerstein, several studies in 1980s:
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Ss allowed to shock insulting female confederate after seeing
X-rated nonviolent porn, or R-rated rape scenes; Viewing rape scenes resulted in more shocks to the female than viewing nonviolent porn. |
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In another study, male Ss saw one of two sexually-violent (rape) films;
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In one, the female was shown eventually enjoying the rape, in the other, she did not;
Men in the first group shocked a female confed more than in the second group; No difference in shocking a male confederate (rules out arousal differences as cause). |
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Donnerstein 1980s slasher film study:
Male Ss saw one R-rated slasher movie each day for 5 days, control Ss saw PG movies; They rated various emotions after each one; Across the 5 days they became - desensitized to violence, enjoyed successive films more, felt less anxiety and disgust. |
On 6th day, scheduled movie “wasn’t available” but, “coincidentally” other researcher needed Ss for “jury study;”
Ss saw video of mock rape trial, and served as jury; Those who saw 5 days of slasher movies were (in comparison with PG movie group) less likely to convict the rapist, saw the victim as less harmed, saw victim as more responsible for rape. |
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Mixed findings, Donnerstein’s and Z&B’s show differences in results depending on what is measured (behaviors vs. attitudes that may underlie behaviors);
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A recent 1990s review of such studies indicates that results for violent sexual material (Donnerstein) is consistent and relatively strong, while results for nonviolent sex (Z&B) are mixed and weaker.
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Naturalistic/epidemiological studies of sexual media & behavior/attitude effects
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Australia: increase in rape in S. Australia in 1980s, where porn laws were liberalized, but not in Queensland, where porn laws remained restrictive.
Hawaii; downturn in reported rapes in 1974-1976, when state temporarily imposed more restrictive porn laws. US demographic study found correlation between rape rates and sales of newsstand sex magazines. |
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1986 study of men found a negative correlation between exposure to nonviolent porn and repressive attitudes towards women.
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1988 study of regional magazine sales in US found a weak negative relationship between sales of explicit and violent-themed sex mags and rape rates.
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1990 study of newsstand erotic magazine sales and composite score of states’ gender equality (political + economic + legal policies); found positive correlation between magazine sales and gender-equal conditions.
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In Japan, porn has much more emphasis on rape, bondage, S/M, yet has rape rate of 2.4/100K, whereas US has rate of 34.5/100K.
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Government commissions investigating effects of pornography:
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Nixon’s 1967 Commission on Obscenity and Pornography concluded, based on scientific research, no significant negative effects of explicit porn on crime, delinquency, sexual or nonsexual deviance;
Nixon threw it in trashcan, called committee’s report “morally bankrupt.” |
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1986 Meese (Reagan’s AG) pornography commission (based on expert testimony only, no new data):
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occurred after proliferation of adult porn industry and proliferation of psychological research;
scientific committee concluded that violent sexual material (rape, etc.) increased violence towards women, nonviolent sex did not. |
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Meese disregarded latter, wrote his own conclusion that all porn caused sexual deviance and violence, argued for control of X-rated sex material, endorsed legal opportunity for rape victims to sue porn industry;
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He ignored Donnerstein’s
studies of R-rated sexually- violent movies, which showed most violent effects. |
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Miscellaneous topics:
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Public sexual health messages on TV
most Americans, including majority of Catholics, approve of PSAs on safe sex and birth control ads. condom ads mainly on cable channels (MTV, BET, Comedy Central, Oxygen); major networks too afraid of backlash. |
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sexual anxiety desensitization
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therapeutic exposure to “tasteful” explicit sexual depictions, including some porn, can reduce sexual dysfunction in some.
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marital enhancement
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many therapists recommend occasional use of porn to “spice up” sex lives, if both partners agreeable.
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Individuals’ responses to sexual media may be largely a function of the attitudinal characteristic of erotophilia/erotophobia
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i.e., some persons enjoy a variety of sexual stimuli (actual sex, porn, dirty jokes, info) while other persons do not enjoy any depiction (or even thoughts) of sex.
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A variety of strategies have emerged to assist/empower the public with some regulation of media content or its effects
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Some are self-regulatory (e.g., movie ratings), some are educational (media literacy), and some are formal regulatory policies (FCC).
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Motion picture ratings
- created by MPAA in 1968 in response to increasingly explicit content in movies; |
intended as parental guides;
uses 8-15 raters (must be parents) to judge rating level of movies submitted; raters are full-time MPAA employees; anonymous, secretive procedures. |
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ratings breakdown
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G – General audience. All ages admitted.
PG - Parental guidance suggested. Some material may not be suitable for young children. PG-13 - Parents strongly cautioned. Some material may be inappropriate for children under 13. R – Restricted. Under 17 requires accompanying parent or legal guardian. NC-17 - No one 17 and under admitted. |
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Potts 2006 study of MPAA ratings reasons
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Since 1992, ratings have included a phrase explaining the rating assignment, e.g., “Rated R for violence, and sexuality.”
Potts found that since 1998-2000: fewer uses of “mild” when describing violence and language in PG movies; more uses of “thematic elements” in PG movies (misc. provocative content); more language, sexuality, and drug use terms in PG-13 movie reasons. |
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TV content ratings
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Introduced in 1997, to be used in combination with the V-chip, these ratings appear in the first 15 seconds of a program.
Like MPAA ratings, TV ratings are a voluntary self-rating system by networks, cable channels, and local stations. Programs not required to be rated include documentaries, newscasts, and sports events (although some are still rated). |
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The TV age-based ratings levels include
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TV-Y (suitable for young children)
TV-Y7 (may not be suitable for children under 7) TV-G (suitable for all audiences) TV-PG (parental guidance suggested) TV-14 (parental guidance suggested for children under 14) TV-MA (suitable for mature audiences or adults only) |
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In addition, content codes often accompany the age ratings:
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V for violence
S for sexual situations L for coarse language D for suggestive dialogue The V-chip, now required in all TV sets, can be programmed to block programs on the basis of the age level or the content. |
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Media Literacy
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Represents educational efforts to teach viewers, mainly children, about the medium itself in order to increase critical analysis/use.
Hypothesis is that if children are critical viewers, they will not be affected as much by undesirable media content. |
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Various efforts to teach children the nature of the medium have been shown to increase immediate knowledge gains, e.g., that TV programs are fabricated, fictional, have an economic motivation, that violence is scripted, etc.
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Some efforts have sought to increase defense against commercial persuasion.
Long term and/or behavioral outcomes have generally not been evaluated. |
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Huesmann, Eron, et al’s (1983) 2-year curriculum included
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teaching children the fabricated nature of TV violence; this alone did not reduce their aggressive behavior; and
Self-generated arguments concerning negative outcomes of watching TV violence; this did reduce the children’s own aggressive behavior, as reported by classmates. |
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Robinson et al (2001)
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created curriculum to help children watch less TV overall, in addition to general media literacy lessons.
The program was effective in reducing viewing level as well as Ss’s aggression across one year. |
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A list of recommendations for parents, scientists, and critical viewers for coping with and even changing the media
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improve quality of TV via legislation and policy change, e.g., CTA 90
- continued research on new media effects topics; videogames, music videos, TV sex, internet, (& cellphones?) - increase media literacy, in schools and on TV; proven effectiveness against undesirable outcomes parent education; use educators and pediatricians to disseminate parent guidelines for children’s media use, e.g., known effects, limiting hours, coviewing, discussion of own values; use V-chip - emphasize/encourage further prosocial themes, such as tolerance for diversity, self-worth, self-control of aggression - improve advertising requirements; ads not protected by 1st amendment; e.g. liquor ads on TV emphasize immediate public health needs over perceived morality; e.g., condom ads, STD and birth control PSAs - lobbying for media-centered advocacy, to respond to alcohol, tobacco, firearm lobbies which protect their own interests. - organize voice of opposition to undesired media values; write to FCC, networks, stations (complaint file), politicians, via “grassroots” campaigns |
