Psych 1,2,3

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Psychology-

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Scientific study of behavior and mental processes

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-Critical Thinking-

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Process of objectively evaluating, comparing, analyzing and synthesizing information

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Psychologies Goal’s

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Description - Tells “what” occurred
Explanation - Tells “why” occurred
Prediction – Identifying a future behavior or mental process likely to occur
Change – Using psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted outcomes

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Wundt

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– “father of psychology” (introspection)

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Introspection

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Monitoring and reporting contents of consciousness (one of their earliest research methods)

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Structuralism

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Titchener, took from Wundt – Dealt with structure of mental life
a. Short-lived but established a model of studying psych

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Functionalism

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Structuralisms successor – Studied how the mind functions to adapt human and nonhuman animals to their environment
a. Strongly influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution and natural selection
b. Eventually declined

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Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic perspective

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– Sigmund Freud – Focuses on unconscious processes and unresolved past conflict
a. Formed psychoanalysis to deal with unconscious conflicts

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Behavioral Perspective –

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Emphasizes objective, observable environmental influences on overt behavior
a. Watson, founder – later picked up by Skinner – research done through studying nonhuman animals

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6. Humanistic Perspective

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Emphasizes free will, self actualization (state of self-fulfillment where realize full potential)
a. More of a philosophy of life

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7. Positive Psychology –

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Scientific study of optimal human functioning, emphasizing positive emotions, positive traits, and positive institutions
a. Positive emotions
b. Positive traits
c. Positive institutions

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8. Cognitive Perspective

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Focuses on thinking, perceiving, and information processing

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9. Neuroscience/biopsychology perspective -

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Emphasizes genetics and other biological processes in the brain and other parts of the nervous system
a. How genetics and other biological processes contribute to our behavior

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10. Evolutionary Perspective

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Focuses on natural selection, adaptation, and evolution of behavior and mental processes
a. Traits evolved because it help people survived

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Biopsychosocial Model

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Unifying (seven major perspectives) modern psychology that incorporates biological, psychological and social process

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Basic research

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Research conducted to advance scientific knowledge

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Applied research –

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– Research designed to solve practical problems

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Meta-Analysis

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Combining and analyzing data from many studies

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Four Major Research Methods

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1. Experimental
2. Descriptive
a. Naturalistic observation ¬– observing behavior in the participant’s natural state or habitat
b. Surveys – Questions a large sample of people
c. Case studies – In depth study of a single participant
3. Correlational – Researcher observes 2+ naturally occurring variables to find the relationship (don’t mistake with cause and effect)
4. Biological – Scientific study of the brain and other parts of the nervous system

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Experimenter bias

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Occurs when researcher influences research results in the expected direction

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Double-blind study

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Both the researcher and the participants are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group

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Sample bias

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When research participants are not representative of the larger population---random sampling is unbiased.

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Random assignment

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Randomly assigning participants to the experimental and the control groups

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Participant bias

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when participants’ behavior or mental processes are influenced by the experimental conditions.

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Neuron

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Neurons
1. Neurons – Cells of the nervous system that communicate information throughout the brain and the rest of the body
a. Dendrites – look like branches, receive electrochemical information from other neurons and transmit it to the cell body
b. Cell Body – From the dendrites, information flows to the cell body – once it receives enough stimulation, passes information on the axon
c. Axon – Long tube like structure, carries information away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands

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Action potentials

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i. Axon transmits them when positively charged ions move in and out through channels in the axon’s membrane

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ii. Myelin sheath

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– A white fatty coating around the axon

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iii. Terminal buttons

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release neurotransmitters

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iv. Synapse

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Neurotransmitters flow across synapse to attach to other neurons

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glial cells

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• Neurons are held in place and supported by them

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1. Neurotransmitters

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serve many functions – regulate actions of glands and muscles, promote sleep and mental and physical alertness, learning and memory, motivation, and emotions

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Endorphins

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(Neurotransmitter)
Mimics the effects of opium based drugs (morphine) - elevate mood and reduce pain—as well as affect memory, learning, blood pressure, appetite and sexual activity

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b. Dopamine levels

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Low levels of Dopamine risk for Parkinson’s disease (l-dopa, levodopa used to raise levels) and high levels of dopamine could contribute to some forms of schizophrenia

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1. Endocrine system

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Made up of a network of glands that form a communication system, uses hormones to carry its message

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Hormones

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Released by the endocrine system play an important role in maintaining body’s normal functions

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Action potentials

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i. Axon transmits them when positively charged ions move in and out through channels in the axon’s membrane

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ii. Myelin sheath

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– A white fatty coating around the axon

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iii. Terminal buttons

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release neurotransmitters

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iv. Synapse

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Neurotransmitters flow across synapse to attach to other neurons

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glial cells

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• Neurons are held in place and supported by them

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1. Neurotransmitters

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serve many functions – regulate actions of glands and muscles, promote sleep and mental and physical alertness, learning and memory, motivation, and emotions

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a. Endorphins (Neurotransmitter)

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mimic the effects of opium based drugs (morphine) - elevate mood and reduce pain—as well as affect memory, learning, blood pressure, appetite and sexual activity

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b. Dopamine levels

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Low levels of Dopamine risk for Parkinson’s disease (l-dopa, levodopa used to raise levels) and high levels of dopamine could contribute to some forms of schizophrenia

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1. Endocrine system

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Made up of a network of glands that form a communication system, uses hormones to carry its message

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Hormones

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Released by the endocrine system play an important role in maintaining body’s normal functions

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1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

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(brain, spinal) – Processing and organizing information
• Nerve cells from base of brain down spinal cord are irreparable
a. Brain
i. Neuroplasticity:
ii. Neurogenesis:
iii. Stem-Cell:
b. spinal cord
i. reflexes

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i. Neuroplasticity

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brains ability to reorganize/change is structure and function throughout life as a result of usage and experience

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ii. Neurogenesis

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Process of generating new neurons – occurs too slowly to see

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iii. Stem-Cell

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Immature (uncommitted) cells with potential to develop into almost any type of cell

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1. Peripheral nervous system

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(PNS) (everything else) – Carries messages (action potentials) between CNS and PNS
a. Somatic (skeletal) Nervous System (SNS) – voluntary movements etc…
b. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) - Involuntary (heart rate, breathing)

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a. Somatic (skeletal) Nervous System

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In the Peripheral nervous system---

voluntary movements etc…
i. Is a two way street – carries sensory information to the CNS and then carries messages from the CNS to skeletal muscles

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b. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) -

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In the Peripheral Nervous System.

- Involuntary (heart rate, breathing)

i. Sympathetic nervous system (arouses) “fight or flight response”
ii. Parasympathetic nervous system (calms)

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i. Sympathetic nervous system

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In the PNS and in the ANS

(arouses) “fight or flight response”
1. Anger, anxiety, fear – automatic response, shut down digestive processes and pumps hormones such as cortisol into blood stream
2. Can get activated if you’re simply stressed or if your life is being threatened – chronic arousal can be detrimental to health

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• Arguments during meals....

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cause stomachaches – strong emotions (sympathetic system in dominance) – prevents digestion

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During sex....

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Sympathetic dominance (strong emotions - fear, anger, anxiety) during sex – disrupts sexual arousal that occurs under parasympathetic dominance (relaxation)

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ii. Parasympathetic nervous system

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In PNS and ANS.

(calms)
1. Returns body to normal functioning – slows heart rate, lowers blood pressure

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1. Three major sections of the brain

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Hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain

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Hindbrain

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influence automatic bodily functions (breathing/heartbeat)
i. Medulla - carries information to and from the brain – controls automatic bodily functions (respiration/
ii. Cerebellum – (two fists) coordinates fine muscle movement and balance (although commands for movement come from cerebral cortex)
1. Also has to do with attention and concentration (visual attention – ex tapping fingers while describing people’s clothing)
2. If this is injured, you will have troubled being balanced
iii. Pons – above Medulla and Cerebellum - involved in respiration, movement, sleeping, waking, dreaming (other things)

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i. Medulla

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carries information to and from the brain – controls automatic bodily functions (respiration/heartbreat)

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ii. Cerebellum

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(two fists) coordinates fine muscle movement and balance (although commands for movement come from cerebral cortex)
1. Also has to do with attention and concentration (visual attention – ex tapping fingers while describing people’s clothing)
2. If this is injured, you will have troubled being balanced

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Pons

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above Medulla and Cerebellum - involved in respiration, movement, sleeping, waking, dreaming (other things)

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Midbrain****

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Responsible for coordinating movement patterns, sleep, and arousal

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c. Forebrain

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– largest most prominent part of brain
i. Thalamus – receives input of nearly all sensory systems then directs the information to the cerebral cortex.
1. Injury to thalamus could result in deafness, blindness or affect other senses (except smell)
ii. Hypothalamus – “master control center” for basic drives such as hunger, thirst, sex and aggression
iii. Limbic system – responsible for emotions, drives and memory
1. Hippocampus – involved in forming/retrieving memories (visual, auditory, scent, physically painful memories)
2. Amygdala – anxiety and anger in both stages of arousal located here

AND CEREBRAL CORTEX (ALL ITS LOBES)

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i. Thalamus

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– receives input of nearly all sensory systems then directs the information to the cerebral cortex.
1. Injury to thalamus could result in deafness, blindness or affect other senses (except smell)

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ii. Hypothalamus

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“master control center” for basic drives such as hunger, thirst, sex and aggression

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ii. Parasympathetic nervous system

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In PNS and ANS.

(calms)
1. Returns body to normal functioning – slows heart rate, lowers blood pressure

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1. Three major sections of the brain

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Hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain

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Hindbrain

Back 68

influence automatic bodily functions (breathing/heartbeat)
i. Medulla - carries information to and from the brain – controls automatic bodily functions (respiration/
ii. Cerebellum – (two fists) coordinates fine muscle movement and balance (although commands for movement come from cerebral cortex)
1. Also has to do with attention and concentration (visual attention – ex tapping fingers while describing people’s clothing)
2. If this is injured, you will have troubled being balanced
iii. Pons – above Medulla and Cerebellum - involved in respiration, movement, sleeping, waking, dreaming (other things)

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i. Medulla

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carries information to and from the brain – controls automatic bodily functions (respiration/heartbreat)

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ii. Cerebellum

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(two fists) coordinates fine muscle movement and balance (although commands for movement come from cerebral cortex)
1. Also has to do with attention and concentration (visual attention – ex tapping fingers while describing people’s clothing)
2. If this is injured, you will have troubled being balanced

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Pons

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above Medulla and Cerebellum - involved in respiration, movement, sleeping, waking, dreaming (other things)

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Midbrain****

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Responsible for coordinating movement patterns, sleep, and arousal

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c. Forebrain

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– largest most prominent part of brain
i. Thalamus – receives input of nearly all sensory systems then directs the information to the cerebral cortex.
1. Injury to thalamus could result in deafness, blindness or affect other senses (except smell)
ii. Hypothalamus – “master control center” for basic drives such as hunger, thirst, sex and aggression
iii. Limbic system – responsible for emotions, drives and memory
1. Hippocampus – involved in forming/retrieving memories (visual, auditory, scent, physically painful memories)
2. Amygdala – anxiety and anger in both stages of arousal located here

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i. Thalamus

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(in forebrain)

– receives input of nearly all sensory systems then directs the information to the cerebral cortex.
1. Injury to thalamus could result in deafness, blindness or affect other senses (except smell)

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ii. Hypothalamus

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(in forebrain)
“master control center” for basic drives such as hunger, thirst, sex and aggression

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ii. Parasympathetic nervous system

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In PNS and ANS.

(calms)
1. Returns body to normal functioning – slows heart rate, lowers blood pressure

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1. Three major sections of the brain

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Hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain

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Hindbrain

Back 78

influence automatic bodily functions (breathing/heartbeat)
i. Medulla - carries information to and from the brain – controls automatic bodily functions (respiration/
ii. Cerebellum – (two fists) coordinates fine muscle movement and balance (although commands for movement come from cerebral cortex)
1. Also has to do with attention and concentration (visual attention – ex tapping fingers while describing people’s clothing)
2. If this is injured, you will have troubled being balanced
iii. Pons – above Medulla and Cerebellum - involved in respiration, movement, sleeping, waking, dreaming (other things)

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i. Medulla

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carries information to and from the brain – controls automatic bodily functions (respiration/heartbreat)

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ii. Cerebellum

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(two fists) coordinates fine muscle movement and balance (although commands for movement come from cerebral cortex)
1. Also has to do with attention and concentration (visual attention – ex tapping fingers while describing people’s clothing)
2. If this is injured, you will have troubled being balanced

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Pons

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above Medulla and Cerebellum - involved in respiration, movement, sleeping, waking, dreaming (other things)

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Midbrain****

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Responsible for coordinating movement patterns, sleep, and arousal

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c. Forebrain

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– largest most prominent part of brain
i. Thalamus – receives input of nearly all sensory systems then directs the information to the cerebral cortex.
1. Injury to thalamus could result in deafness, blindness or affect other senses (except smell)
ii. Hypothalamus – “master control center” for basic drives such as hunger, thirst, sex and aggression
iii. Limbic system – responsible for emotions, drives and memory
1. Hippocampus – involved in forming/retrieving memories (visual, auditory, scent, physically painful memories)
2. Amygdala – anxiety and anger in both stages of arousal located here

iv. Cerebral cortex (AND ALL THE LOBES ETC THAT GOES ALONG WITH IT)

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i. Thalamus

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(in forebrain)

– receives input of nearly all sensory systems then directs the information to the cerebral cortex.
1. Injury to thalamus could result in deafness, blindness or affect other senses (except smell)

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ii. Hypothalamus

Back 85

(in forebrain)
“master control center” for basic drives such as hunger, thirst, sex and aggression

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Limbic system

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– responsible for emotions, drives and memory
1. Hippocampus – involved in forming/retrieving memories (visual, auditory, scent, physically painful memories)
2. Amygdala – anxiety and anger in both stages of arousal located here

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Hippocampus

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In limbic system

involved in forming/retrieving memories (visual, auditory, scent, physically painful memories)

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Amygdala

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In limbic system

-anxiety and anger in both stages of arousal located here

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Cerebral cortex

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In Forebrain

-– responsible for most complex behaviors and higher mental processes – – (doesn’t regulate life sustaining bodily functions)

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What's in Cerebral cortex?

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1. Frontal Lobes (two frontal lobes) – receives and coordinates messages
a. Higher functions – thinking, personality, emotion and memory
b. Speech production - speech
c. Motor control – (motor cortex – back of lobe) voluntary movements
• Prefrontal thinking – “executive center” - controls abstract reasoning/ thinks about consequences
•
2. Parietal Lobes (two)
a. Somatosensory – interpret bodily sensations (pressure, pain, touch, temperature and location of body parts)
3. Temporal Lobes (two) – hearing, language comprehension, memory and some emotional control
a. Auditory cortex – processes sound and sends to parietal lobes
4. Occipital Lobes (two) – vision and visual perception
a. Each eye has 2 fields, four sets of information that comes in
b. Information cross in the center of the brain and are projected then interpreted by occipital lobe

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Frontal Lobes

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1. (two frontal lobes) – receives and coordinates messages
a. Higher functions – thinking, personality, emotion and memory
b. Speech production
c. Motor control – (motor cortex – back of lobe) voluntary movements

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• Prefrontal thinking

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“executive center” - controls abstract reasoning/ thinks about consequences (compliments go system)

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Parietal Lobes

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(two)
a. Somatosensory – interpret bodily sensations (pressure, pain, touch, temperature and location of body parts)

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Temporal Lobes

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(two) – hearing, language comprehension, memory and some emotional control
a. Auditory cortex – processes sound and sends to parietal lobes

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Occipital Lobes

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(two) – vision and visual perception
a. Each eye has 2 fields, four sets of information that comes in
b. Information cross in the center of the brain and are projected then interpreted by occipital lobe

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“Go system”

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1. Gives impulsive thoughts: “lets eat”, “lets drink”, “lets have sex”
2. Monitored by the executive system/prefrontal lobe
3. People with addictions their go system overrides their executive system

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Strokes

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a. When someone has a stroke they:
i. Have blood in the brain
1. Blood kills brain tissue
ii. Lack of oxygen in the brain
b. Hemispheres are contra lateral (control opposite sides – if the left cortex of brain is injured, the right side of the body will be injured).

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Evolutionary psychologists

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i. Behavioral commonalities remain in humans because they helped our ancestors survive --- natural selection – natural forces select traits that are adaptive to the organism’s survival

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Stress

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1. Eustress – Good stress – helps arouse, motivate us towards accomplishment
a. Exercise – autonomic nervous system to kick in
b. Procrastination
i. When under pressure, produce more adrenaline, able to focus more – absorb more information, lifts level of competence-----not god to get to the point of anxiety
2. Distress – Bad stress

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7 Major Stressors

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1. Life changes
a. Old factory lobe – A part of our brain is reptilian– reptilian brain hates change, wants homeostasis (balance)
b. More change experience – greater chance of getting physically or mentally sick.
2. Chronic stress
a. On going stress constantly arouses the sympathetic system, rarely allowing the parasympathetic system to take over, relaxing our body – wears body down
3. Job stress
a. Unemployments, job performance etc.
b. Role Conflict - when someone is forced to take on two or more different and incompatible roles at the same time (student/worker)
c. Burnout – psychological and physical exhaustion from chronic job stress and little personal control
4. Hassles
a. Little problems of daily living that pile up
5. Frustration
a. Negative emotional state associated with a blocked goal
6. Conflict
a. Approach-approach conflict - having to choose between two more or more favorable alternatives
b. Avoidance-avoidance conflict – a forced choice between two or more unpleasant alternatives
c. Approach avoidance conflict – When have to choose between alternatives that will have both desirable and undesirable results
7. Cataclysmic events
a. Traumatic event affecting many people

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Life changes

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a. Old factory lobe – A part of our brain is reptilian– reptilian brain hates change, wants homeostasis (balance)
b. More change experience – greater chance of getting physically or mentally sick.

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Chronic stress

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a. On going stress constantly arouses the sympathetic system, rarely allowing the parasympathetic system to take over, relaxing our body – wears body down

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Job stress

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a. Unemployments, job performance etc.
b. Role Conflict - when someone is forced to take on two or more different and incompatible roles at the same time (student/worker)
c. Burnout – psychological and physical exhaustion from chronic job stress and little personal control

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Conflict

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a. Approach-approach conflict - having to choose between two more or more favorable alternatives
b. Avoidance-avoidance conflict – a forced choice between two or more unpleasant alternatives
c. Approach avoidance conflict – When have to choose between alternatives that will have both desirable and undesirable results

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1. General Adaptation Syndrome

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a. Stage 1: Alarm
b. Stage 2: Resistance – sudden outpour of hormones
c. Stage 3: Exhaustion – Adaption requires E – more things you adapt, more energy you expend
d. Stage 4: Death - Initially expending too much Energy leads to sickness, but if continue expending energy, will lead to death

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SAM System (Sympatho-Adreno-Medullary)

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a. Body’s initial, fast acting response to stress involving the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla
b. Cortisol interferes with cognitive functioning (ppl “freeze” during crisis)

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HPA Axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocontical)

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a. The hypothalamus alerts the pituitary gland to secrete hormones which causes secretion of the cortisol – once cortisol reaches a certain level parts of brain, particularly hippocampus tells hypothalamus to turn off the stress response
b. Prolonged stress can damage the hippocampus (key part of brain involving memory) --- then hippocampus cannot regulate cortisol for the hypothalamus – vicious cycle

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Type A person

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1. Characteristics of type A person
a. Time urgent – impatient
b. Achievements oriented – no fun, always achieving
c. Aggressiveness – Hostile, short-tempered
d. Polyphasic behavior – too many things going on at once
• Type A people have a significantly greater change of getting heart disease
• Studies show that the only characteristic of a type A person that lead to heart disease is aggressiveness (cynical hostility)

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Hardiness

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a resilient type of optimism that comes from 3 different attitudes
• Commitment
• Control – in control of their lives
• Challenge – change as an opportunity to improve

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PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)

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• People who constantly remember a traumatic event – burned into their brains

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Major Health Risks

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• Tobacco – Physical stressor
o Nicotine increases the release of neurotransmitters that increase alertness, concentration, memory and feelings of pleasure.
• Alcohol/ Binge drinking – Physical/psychological stressor

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Chronic Pain

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- - good to exercise - produces endorphins, blocks the perception of pain.

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Stress Management

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• Cognitive appraisal – how we interpret events
• Primary appraisal – deciding if a situation is harmful, threatening or challenging
• Secondary appraisal ¬ - assessing our resources and choosing a coping method
o Emotion-focused coping – manage our emotional reactions
o Problem-solving coping – dealing directly with the stressor to decrease or eliminate it

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Combat Stress

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1. Health and Exercise
2. Think positively
3. Social skills
4. Social support
5. Control -
a. External locus of control - believe in bad luck or fate
b. Internal locus of control - believe they are in charge of their own destiny
6. Relax
7. Sense of humor

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Functionalism

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Structuralisms successor – Studied how the mind functions to adapt human and nonhuman animals to their environment
a. Strongly influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution and natural selection
b. Eventually declined