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92 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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psychology
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-the scientific study of behavior and mind
-comes from greek "psyche" (should or breath) and "logos" (study of) |
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behavior
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-observable actions such as moving about, talking, gesturing, and so on; behaviors can also refer to the activities sof cells and to thoughts and feelings
-can be measured and observed in a systematic way |
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empiricism
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the idea that knowledge arises directly from experience
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Wundt
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medical doctor by training; established the first psychological lab in 1879 at the university of Leipzig
-founder/father of modern psych -believed in the structuralism form of psych |
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Hypothesis
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-a prediction about the characteristics of the behavior under study
-normally expressed in "if-then" statement |
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mean of a dataset
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the middle point in an ordered set of scores; half of the scores fall at or below the median score, and half fall at or above the median score; basically the average
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operational definition
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-definitions that specify how concepts can be observed and measured
-EX: intelligence might be defined operationally as performance on a psych test; memory might be defined as the number of words correctly recalled on a retention test |
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correlation
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-a statistic that indicates whether two variables vary together in a systematic way; correlation coefficients vary from +1.00 to -1.00
-tell yo whether two variables vary together systematically |
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reactivity
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when behavior changes as a result of the observation process
-EX:children are not naturally hesitant and distracted-they were simply startled by your presence |
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scatterplot
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each point in a scatterplot shows an individual's scores on each of the two variables
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independent variable
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the aspect of the environment that is manipulated in an experiment. It must consist of at least two conditions
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dependent variable
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the behavior that is measured or observed in an experiment
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experimental group
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the group that has the change done to them
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control group
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the group that remains the same
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sensory neurons
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cells that carry environmental messages toward the spinal cord and brain
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motor neurons
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cells that carry information away from the central nervous system to the muscles and glads that directly produce behavior
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dendrites
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the fibers that extend outward from a neuron and receive information from other neurons
-EX: like tree branches |
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soma
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the cell body of a neuron
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axon
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the long tail-like part of a neuron that serves as the cell's transmitter
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independent variable
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the aspect of the environment that is manipulated in an experiment. It must consist of at least two conditions
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terminal buttons
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the tiny swellings at the end of the axon that contain chemicals important to the neural transmitter
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dependent variable
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the behavior that is measured or observed in an experiment
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experimental group
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the group that has the change done to them
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control group
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the group that remains the same
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sensory neurons
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cells that carry environmental messages toward the spinal cord and brain
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motor neurons
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cells that carry information away from the central nervous system to the muscles and glads that directly produce behavior
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dendrites
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the fibers that extend outward from a neuron and receive information from other neurons
-EX: like tree branches |
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soma
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the cell body of a neuron
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axon
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the long tail-like part of a neuron that serves as the cell's transmitter
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terminal buttons
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the tiny swellings at the end of the axon that contain chemicals important to the neural transmitter
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synapse
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the small gap between the terminal buttons of a neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another neuron
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central nervous systm
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the brain and the spinal cord
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EEG (electroencephalograph)
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a device used to monitor the gross electrical activity of the brain
-useful as a research tool or a diagnostic purpose |
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hindbrain
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a primitive part of the brain that sits at the juncture point where the brain and spinal cord merge. Structure in the hindbrain, including the medulla, pons, and reticular formation, act as the basic life-support system for the body
-no creative thoughts or complex emotions -oldest part of the brain |
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cerebellum
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a hindbrain structure at the base of the brain that is involved in the coordination of complex motor skills
-means "little brain" -motor skills such as: hitting a golf ball, playing the piano, or using tools |
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thalamus
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a relay station in the forebrain thought to be an important gathering point for input from the senses
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temporal lobes
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one of the four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located roughly on the sides of the brain; its involved in certain aspects of speech and language perception
-involved in processing auditory information received from the left and right ears |
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occipital lobes
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one of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located at the back of the brain; visual processing is controlled here
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corpus callosum
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the collection of nerve fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and allows information to pass from one side to the other
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sensation
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the elementary components, or building blocks, of an experience (such as a pattern of light and dar, a bitter taste, or a change in temperature)
-fundamental, elementary components of an experience |
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cones
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receptor cells in the central portion of the retina that transduce light energy into neural messages; they operate best when light levels are high, and they are primarily responsible for the ability to sense color
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perception
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the collection of processes used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of sensation
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rods
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receptor cells in the central portion of the retina, located mainly around the sides, that transduce light energy into neural messages; these visual receptors are highly sensitive and are active in dim light
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fovea
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the "central pit" area in the retina where the cone receptors are located
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prosopagnosia
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the ability to recognize faces is lost
-fail to recognize acquaintances, family members, and even their own reflections |
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transduction
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the process by which external messages are translated into the internal language of the brain
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visual cortex
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more components of a message are picked out and identified
-visual processing ends at the visual cortex -highly specialized processing takes place here |
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top-down processing
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processing that is controlled by one's beliefs and expectations about how the world is organized
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bottom-up processing
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processing that is controlled by the physical message delivered to the senses
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trichromatic theory
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a theory of color vision proposing that color information is extracted by comparing the relative activations of three different types of cone receptors
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habituation
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the decline in tendency to respond to an even that has become familiar through repeated exposure
-through habituation, organisms learn to be selective about what they orient toward -occurs most likely when the stimulus is mild/modest in intensity and repeated -occurs faster when repetitions occur close together in time -example of learning because it produces changes in behavior as a function of experience |
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sensitization
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increased responsiveness, or sensitivity, to an event that has been repeated
-occurs more likely when the repeated stimulus is intense |
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unconditioned stimulus (US)-
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stimulus that automatically leads to an observable response prior to any training
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conditioned stimulus (CS)
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the neutral stimulus that is paired with they unconditioned stimulus during classical conditioning
-response to stimuli is learned/ conditioned or acquired as a result of experience -Pavlov: EX: doggy hears footsteps (CS) a drools (CR) in anticipation of food |
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unconditioned response (UR)
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observable response poured automatically, prior to training, on presentation of an unconditional stimulus
-EX: food in mouth (US) a drool (UR) -no learning or conditioning required -Pavlov |
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conditioned response (CR)
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the acquired response produced by the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the unconditioned stimulus
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blocking
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occurs because something provides no new information
-EX: teach rats that tone means shocking, then present a light with the tone. The tone already tells the rats that a shook is owing, the light does nothing |
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rehearsal
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a strategic process that helps to maintain short-term memories indefinitely through the use of internal repetition
-without rehearsal, short-term memories are quickly forgottn |
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short-term memory
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a limited-capapcity system that we use to hold information after it has been analyzed for periods lasting less than a minute or two
-limited-capacity "working memory" |
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episodic memory
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a memory for a particular event, or episode, that happened to you personally, such as remembering what you ate for breakfast this morning or where you went on vacay last year
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semantic memory
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knowledge about the world, stored as facts that make little or no reference to one's personal experiences
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procedural memory
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knowledge about how to do things, such as riding a bike or swinging a golf club
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serial position effect
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the pattern that shows that you'll remember items from the beginning and end of a sequence when you need to remember a list
-usually shown on a graphy |
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cognitive psychology
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the study of activities that underlie all forms of thought
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phonemes
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the smallest significant sound units in speech
-produced through a complex coordination of the vocal chords, lungs, lips, tongue, and even teeth -english speakers use only about 40-45 phonemes |
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morphemes
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the smallest units of language that carry meaning
-usually consist of sigle words, but can also be prefixes or suffixes: EX: cool (1 morpheme), uncool (2 morphemes) -the grammar of a language dictates the acceptable order of morphemes within a word |
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surface structure
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corresponds to its superficial appearance (the literal ordering of words)
-EX: stephanie kissed the crying boy OR the crying boy was kissed by Stephanie |
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deep structure
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refers to the underlying representation fo meaning
-language production requires the transformation of deep structure into acceptable surface structure -EX: visiting relatives can be a nuisance OR visiting relative can be a nuisance |
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pragmatics
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the practical knowledge used to comprehend the intentions of a speaker and to produce an effective response
-RULES: be informative -tell the truth -be relevant -be clear |
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telegraphic speech
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grammatical two-word combinations; 24 months
-speech reflects knowledge of syntax, as words are almost always confined in the proper order |
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overgeneralization
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proof that children are naturally tuned to pick up the rules of language
-EX: goed, wented, falled, etc. |
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categories
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to make sense of our environment, we carve the world into meaningful chunks; the ability to see similarities among things, to classify objects and events, allows us to simplify our environment and make predicitons about how to act
-a class of objects (people, places, or things) that most people agree belong together |
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basic-level categories
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the level in a category hierarchy that provides the most useful and reductive information; the most basic level usually resides at an intermediate level in a category hierarchy
-EX: living thing a animal a cat (basic level) a Siamese |
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psychometric approach
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the use of psychological tests to measure the mind and mental processes
-intelligence determined by administering a variety of tests that measure specific mental skills,such as verbal comprehension, memory, or spatial ability |
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g factor (general intelligence)
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according to Spearman (influential psychologist from 1863-1945), a general factor, derived from factor analysis, that underlies or contributes to performance on a variety of mental tests
-EX: performance on all tests; someone who is high in intelligence should perform well on many different kinds of ability tests |
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s factor (specific intelligence)
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according to Spearman, a specific factor, derived from factor analysis, that is unique to a particular kind of test
-EX: performing well on verbal comprehension but not necessarily spatial ability |
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fluid intelligence
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the natural ability to solve problems, reason, and remember; fluid intelligence is thought to be relatively uninfluenced by experience
-determined by biological or genetic factors |
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crystallized intelligence
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the knowledge and abilities acquired as a result of experience (as from schooling and cultural influences)
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Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
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people possess a set of separate and independent "intelligences" ranging from musical to linguistic to interpersonal ability
-these skills not traditionally covered by the verbal and analytical battery of commonly used intelligence tests -Gardner rejects idea that intelligence can be conceptualized through the psychometric approach *musical-the type of ability displayed by gifted musicians or child prodigies *bodily-kinesthetic-the type of ability shown by gifted athletes, dancers, or surgeons who have great control over body movements *logical-mathematical-the type of ability displayed by superior scientists and logical problem solvers *linguistic-ability shown by great writers or poets who can express themselves verbally *spatial-ability shown by those with superior navigation skills or an ability to visualize spatial scenes *Interpersonal-ability shown by those who can easily infer other people's moods, temperaments, or intentions and motivations *Intrapersonal-ability shown by someone wo has great insight into his or her own feelings and emotions *naturalist-ability to observe and interact with divers species in nature; shown by biologists or environments |
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Triarchic Theory
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proposed by Robert Sternberg; says there are three types of intelligence:analytical, creative, and practical
-analytical: people tend to perform well on conventional tests that tap reasoning and logical-mathematical ability *EX: SAT, ACT, etc. -Creative: how well people are able to create, invent, and discover *EX: applying skills you've learned in a new way; coping with novel tasks -Practical: measure of how well people can take ideas and put them into everyday practice *EX: solving problems that are uniquely posed by their cultural surroundings; "street smart" |
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Test reliability
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consistency of test results; reliable tests produce similar scores or indices from one administration to the next
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IQ (intelligence quotient)
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mental age divided by chronological age and then multiplied by 100
-useful measure because it establishes an easy-to-understand baseline for "average intelligence"-people of average intelligence will have an IQ of 100 because their mental age will always be equal to their chronological age. People with IQs greater than 100 are above average and below 100 are below average |
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dizygotic twins
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they develop from two separate eggs that are fertilized by two separate sperm
-EX: fraternal twins |
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monozygotic twins
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they develop from one zygote that splits and forms two embryos
-EX:identical twins |
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stereotype threat
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when people take intelligence tests, they have certain expectations about how they'll perform and these expectations can affect the final score
-EX: if you're nervous or expect to bomb a test, you're less likely to do well |
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stereotype
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collection of beliefs and impressions held about a group and its members; common stereotypes include those based on gender, race, and age
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prejudice
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positive or negative evaluations of a group and its members
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discrimination
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behaviors that are directed against members of a group
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perspective taking
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perceiving physical, social, or emotional situations from a point of view other than one's own
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external attribution
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attributing the cause of a person's behavior to an external event or situation in the environment
-3 factos: consistente, distinctive, and consensus -EX: we know Ira is always in a good mood after his exercise class because it is highly consistent (every MWF); its occurrence is distinctive (he's happy after the class); and there is a high level of consensus (exercise tends to make people happy) |
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internal attribution
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attributing the cause of a person's behavior to an internal personality trait or disposition
-EX: a friendly, pleasant person |
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bystander effect
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the reluctance to come to the aid of a person in need when other people are present
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