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169 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Freud
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- His theories are widely discounted by modern psychologists, yet are still important to know
- Developed theories by only studying abnormal females |
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Free Association
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- Talks about what comes to mind; don't look at analyst
- People will do anything to stay asleep; when there's an outside disruption and you don't wake up, that psychic disruption (trauma) is incorporated into the dream |
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3 Main Components of Psyche
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- Id: instinctual energy, libido (pleasure)
- Ego: Makes decisions, tells person what to do; don't have it when you're born - Superego: Ego's ideal --> Who you should be based on values, ideals you have learned --> Creates guilt and shame --> Interaction with rest of the world works to keep Id in check |
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Conscious/Preconscious/Unconscious Interaction (Psychodynamic Model)
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- Conscious = Ego
- Preconscious: Can come up to the surface (conscious) quickly - Unconscious: Cannot get up to the surface easily - Dream: Can get up to the conscious but also down to unconscious through free association - Id and Superego: part of the unconscious |
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Anxiety
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The demands placed upon the Ego create anxiety
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Objective Anxiety
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A normal reaction to a perceived threat in the external world
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Neurotic Anxiety
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The fear that Id-based impulses will get out of control
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Moral Anxiety
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Feelings of guilt and shame imposed by the Superego
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Defense Mechanisms
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- Mental systems that reduce anxiety
- Become active whenever unconscious instinctual drives of the Id come into conflict with the Superego --> They can operate unconsciously --> They can distort, transform, or falsify reality in some way |
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Types of Defense Mechanisms: Repression
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Force unpleasant things into unconscious
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Rationalization
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Make excuse up after an event you don't like or disappoints you happens
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Displacement
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Put your feeling on something else than source of disappointment
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Sublimation
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Move energy to a more socially acceptable medium
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Projection
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Put your own faults, shortcomings on someone else
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Reaction Formation
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Take anxiety-creating impulse and do opposite
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Denial
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Refuse to accept unfortunate, displeasing truths
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Regression
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Return to previous stage in development
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Freud on Dream Interpretation
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- Dreams often do not make sense, but an interpretation can nonetheless be developed (often with resistance from the dreamer)
- Freud contended that the right interpretation often involved sexual content, including fulfillment of hidden wishes (for males, sex with one's mother and death of one's father) - Resistance became a sign that Freud was onto the right interpretation |
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Manifest Content
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What actually happens in dream
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Latent Content
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What the symbolic/analytic meaning of dream is
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Criticism of Freud's Dream Interpretation
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Can't be proven or disproved
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Hobson and McCarley's Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
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- The pons (in the brainstem) produces random neural firing = REM and paralysis
--> Forebrain is activated * Limbic system (emotions) is activated - Cortex must come up with a "story" to explain the random neural firing |
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(Some) Key Issues in Personality Today
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- Individual differences
--> Freud assumed similar paths (stages) - People are active agents - Stability vs. Change - Most empirical literature: traits |
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Personality Traits
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- Trait: generalized disposition to think, feel, and act in certain ways
- A cluster of behaviors and attitudes (not a single behavior or attitude) - Relatively enduring aspect of personality --> Consistent across time (development) and situations * Time: R = .5 (leaves 75% of variance unexplained) * Average longitudinal study = 6 years |
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Costa & McCrae's "Big 5" Factors of Personality: Emotional Stability
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- Calm (vs. Anxious)
- Secure (vs. Insecure) - Self-Satisfied (vs. Self-Pitying) - Confident |
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Extraversion
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- Sociable (vs. Retiring)
- Fun-Loving (vs. Somber) - Affectionate (vs. Reserved) |
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Openness
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- Imaginative (vs. Practical)
- Interested in Variety (vs. Routine) - Independent (vs. Conforming) - Inventive - Curious (vs. Closed) |
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Agreeableness
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- Softhearted (vs. Ruthless)
- Trusting (vs. Suspicious) - Helpful (vs. Uncooperative) - Friendly - Compassionate |
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Conscientiousness
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- Organized (vs. Disorganized)
- Careful (vs. Careless) - Disciplined (vs. Impulsive) - Efficient |
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Emotional Stability Related To:
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Positive affect, self-esteem, career decidedness, identity achievement
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Extraversion Related To:
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Positive affect, self-esteem, social dominance, identity achievement
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Openness Related To:
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Positive affect, artistic creativity, being later born
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Agreeableness Related To:
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Interpersonal warmth, empathy, being female, less alcohol use
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Conscientiousness Related To:
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Career decidedness, educational achievement, being first-born
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Behavior
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Often driven by:
- Situation --> Demand Characteristics --> Ambiguity = More Variability --> Highly Structured Situation = Low Variability and High Stability - Mood |
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Longitudinal Studies of the Big 5
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- Generally, stability over time
--> 20s = Lots of Variability (College --> Work --> Family) --> Largest difference is between ages 27 and 43 - Average length of longitudinal study of personality is 6 years |
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NEO-PI-R
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- Costa and McCrae's 240-item test
- Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory, Revised |
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Humanism
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- Abraham Maslow (1908-70) --> Hierarchy of Needs
- Reaction to shortcomings in application of behaviorism - 1950s - Present - Context: behaviorism and psychoanalysis - Carl Rogers --> Client-centered therapy --> Unconditional positive regard/support - "The personal nature of the human experience" |
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Humanism: A Focus on Uniquely Human Issues
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- Self
- Self-actualization - Health - Hope - Love - Creativity - Individuality - Identity |
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Humanism Continued
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- Personality is more than a score on a test
- Focus on conscious experience - Each person has a potential for growth - No person is inherently bad, incapable, or unworthy - People are motivated to grow and use their potential - People are unique individuals - Not particularly statistically supported, as everyone is supposed to be different |
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
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- Based on motivation
- Humanist --> Rejects Behaviorism (mechanistic) --> Rejects psychodynamics (unconscious) --> Focus on potentials - Physical, emotional, aesthetic, self-fulfilling - See diagram (8-stage model) - Self-actualization: process of fulfilling our potential - Self-aware and self-accepting - Open, spontaneous - Loving, caring - Problem-centered, not self-centered |
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Positive Regard (or Lack Thereof)
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- Carl Rogers
- Love, affection --> Humans need it --> Positive Regard --> They can develop positive self-regard - Humans are rational, acting in an irrational world - People experience: --> Conditions of worth --> Conditional positive regard ("good job!") --> Conditional positive self-regard * With conditional worth, we cannot develop into our real selves |
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What Do Humans Need?
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- Given the right environmental conditions, we will develop to our full potentials
- The Conditions: --> Unconditional positive regard --> Genuineness, acceptance, empathy - Result = positive self-concept --> Fully-functioning human |
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Psychodynamic Perspectives
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Views of personality as primarily unconscious (that is, beyond awareness) and as developing in stages. Most psychoanalytic perspectives emphasize that early experiences with parents play a role in sculpting personality
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Freudian Slips
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Misstatements that Freud believed reveal unconscious thoughts
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Pleasure Principle
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Freudian concept that the id always seeks pleasure and avoids pain
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Reality Principle
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The ego tries to bring the individual pleasure within the norms of society
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Erogenous Zones
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Parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure-giving qualities at particular stages of development
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Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development → Oral Stage (first 18 months)
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The infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth
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Anal Stage (18-36 months)
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During toilet training, involves zones associated with eliminative functions
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Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
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Focus on the genitals, self-stimulation; triggers the Oedipus complex
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Oedipus Complex
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In Freud’s theory, a young boy’s intense desire to replace his father and enjoy the affections of his mother
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Latency Period (6 years to puberty)
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Psychic intermission; dismissal of sexuality
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Genital Stage (adolescence and adulthood)
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Time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure comes from outside the family
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Psychodynamic Criticisms
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→ Sexuality is not a pervasive force behind personality
→ First 5 years of life are not as powerful in shaping adult personality as Freud claimed → Ego and conscious thought processes play more dominant roles in personality than Freud gave them credit for → Sociocultural factors are much more important than Freud believed |
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Collective Unconscious
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Carl Jung’s term for the impersonal, deepest layer of the unconscious mind, shared by all human beings because of their common ancestral past
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Archetypes
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The name Jung gave to the emotionally laden ideas and images that have rich and symbolic meaning for all people
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Individual Psychology
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The term for Alfred Adler’s approach, which views people as motivated by purposes and goals and as striving for perfection over pleasure
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Humanistic Perspectives
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Views of personality that stress the person’s capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose a destiny, and positive qualities
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Self-Concept
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A central theme in Carl Rogers’s and other humanists’ views that refers to individuals’ overall perceptions and assessments of their abilities, behavior, and personalities
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Personological and Life Story Perspectives
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Approaches to personality emphasizing that the way to understand the person is to focus on his or her life history and life story⎯aspects that distinguish that individual from all others
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Personology
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A term coined by Henry Murray referring to the study of the whole person
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Life Story Approach
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Stories represent our memories of what makes us who we are and are constantly changing narratives that serve to provide our lives with a sense of coherence
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Social Cognitive Perspectives
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Approaches to personality emphasizing conscious awareness, beliefs, expectations, and goals. Social cognitive psychologists explore the person’s ability to reason; to think about the past, present, and future; and to reflect on the self
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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
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Behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are all important in understanding personality
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Reciprocal Determinism
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Bandura’s term to describe the way behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors interact to create personality
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Observational Learning
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Bandura believed it is a key aspect of how we learn
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Personal Control
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Your cognition leads you to control your behavior and resist environmental influence in this instance
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Self-Efficacy
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The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes
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Cross-Situational Consistency
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A person should behave consistently in different situations, as Mischel defined a trait as a characteristic that ought to make different situations equivalent for a given person
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Situationism
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Mischel’s view that personality and behavior often vary considerably from one context to another
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Person-Situation Debate
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Debate between Mischel’s point of view and those who believe it is a matter of when and how a trait predicts behavior
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Cognitive Affective Processing Systems (CAPS)
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According to Mischel, a set of interconnected cognitive systems through which an individual’s thoughts and emotions about self and the world become linked in ways that matter to behavior
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Self-Report Test
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Also called an objective test or inventory, a type of test that directly asks people whether specific items (usually true/false or agree/disagree) describe their personality traits
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Face Validity
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The extent to which a test item appears to be valid to those who are completing it
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Social Desirability
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A problem with self-report tests that leads many people to answer in a way that seems most socially acceptable
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Empirically Keyed Test
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A type of test that presents a host of questionnaire items to groups of people who are already known to differ in some central way (such as individuals with a psychological disorder versus mentally healthy individuals)
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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
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The most widely used and researched empirically keyed self-report personality test
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Projective Test
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Personality assessment tool that presents individuals with an ambiguous stimulus and then asks them to describe it or tell a story about it⎯in other words, to project their own meaning onto it
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Rorschach Inkblot Test
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A widely used projective test that uses an individual’s perception of inkblots to determine his or her personality
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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A projective test designed to elicit stories that reveal something about an individual’s personality
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Type A Behavior Pattern
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A cluster of characteristics⎯such as being excessively competitive, hard-driven, impatient, and hostile⎯related to the incidence of heart disease
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Type B Behavior Pattern
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A cluster of characteristics⎯such as being relaxed and easygoing⎯related to good health
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Hardiness
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A trait characterized by a sense of commitment and control and a perception of problems as challenges rather than threats
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Love
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- Sex does not equal gender
- Evolutionary Hypothesis about love: biologically driven - Infidelity: women more upset about spouse's emotional infidelity while men are equally upset about emotional and physical infidelity |
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Sternberg's Triangle of Love
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- Essential Components:
--> Passion: intense physiological desire; drives that lead to romance and sexual consummation --> Intimacy: share thoughts and actions; positive self-disclosure --> Commitment: willingness to stay in relationship through good and bad; develop ways to resolve confict - See notes for diagram |
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Intimacy Over Course of Relationship
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- Successful Relationship: manifest (observable) level of intimacy declines while latent (unseen) level of intimacy increases
- Failed Relationship: both levels of intimacy decline |
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Commitment
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Increases in successful relationships, decreases in flagging ones, and decreases much more dramatically in failed relationships (to zero)
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Passion
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Declines over time in all relationships but upticks after conflict resolution
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Social Cognition
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How people select, interpret, remember, and use social information
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Attributions
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Explanations for why people behave the way they do
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Example of Attribution
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You miss class and need to borrow notes. The person who sits next to you scored very well on the last exam while few others did as well.
- Consensus is low - Always does well on tests in this class, so consistency is high - By deciding to borrow the notes, you make an internal (dispositional) attribution because your decision is based on her inner strengths |
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Consensus
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Do other people act the same way with the stimulus?
- Can other people do this behavior? |
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Consistency
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Does the person act the same way with the stimulus at other times? Do they always act this way?
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Distinctiveness
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Does the person act the same way with other stimuli?
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Attributional Style
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- Consistent in individuals over time
- Self-attributions for achievement (Weiner): 1. Ability 2. Effort 3. Task Difficulty 4. Luck/Chance --> Controllable vs. Uncontrollable |
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Academic Attributions of First-Year Students
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- First-year students attribute low grades to stable, internal causes
- This is not adaptive, helpful, effective - Trained to think of low grades as due to temporary causes --> Grades improve, become less likely to drop out |
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Success Attributions of Successful Students
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- Successful attributions: "I'm good!"
--> Internal --> Stable --> Global Attributions |
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Failure Attributions of Successful Students
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"I must have used the wrong study strategy this time, but I'll figure out what the problem was and fix it before the next exam"
- Internal - Unstable - Specific Attributions |
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Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
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- Overestimate dispositional (internal) factors AND
- Underestimate the situational (external) factors when explaining others' behavior - Due to others' salient behavior AND - Less salient situations |
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Actor-Observer Effect
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- Extends FAE
- Others' behavior = internal attributions - Own behavior = situational attributions - Because we see ourselves behave differently across a wide range of situations |
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Self-Serving Bias
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- The tendency we have to locate the causality of the behavior in the place that most benefits us
--> Attribute positive outcomes to our own dispositions and negative outcomes to situational causes |
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Conformity
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- Asch, 1951 study: 37% conform to group
- Factors related to conformity: --> Informational Influence: others provide information --> Normative Influence (Asch): Awareness of group norm --> Size of group (4-5) --> Presence of ally: reduces conformity by 80% --> Age: mid-adolescence shows most conformity |
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Heuristics
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- False Consensus: You think you're in the majority, when you're actually in the minority
- Pleuralistic Ignorance*: You think you're in the minority, when you're actually in the majority |
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Obedience
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- Bickman (1974): Research assistants ordered people on the street to do something
--> Security guard uniforms being worn = 9 of 10 obeyed - Milgram: what percent will continue? --> Experts said 1% --> 65-70% went all the way to really dangerous levels of electricity |
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Factors Related to Obedience
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- Authority figure
- Proximity of victim --> more separation, increase in obedience - Personal responsibility --> ajentic control: give responsibility to someone else (research conductor), so easier to obey - Gradual escalation of harm - Limited knowledge and experience |
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Social Psychology
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The study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people
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Stereotype
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A generalization about a group’s characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
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Our expectations cause us to act in ways that serve to make the expectations come true
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Primacy Effect
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People’s tendency to attend to and remember what they learned first; leads to strong influence of first impressions
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Attribution Theory
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Theory that views people as motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior
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Dimensions of Causality
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The attributions we make about behavior vary along three dimensions
→ Internal/External Causes: internal attributions include all causes internal to the person, such as his or her traits or abilities. External attributions include all causes external to the person, such as social pressure, money, luck, etc. → Stable/Unstable Causes: cause is relatively enduring and permanent or temporary → Controllable/Uncontrollable Causes |
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Positive Illusions
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Positive views of oneself that are not necessarily deep-rooted in reality
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Self-Serving Bias
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The tendency to take credit for one’s successes and to deny responsibility for one’s failures
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Self-Objectification
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The tendency to see oneself primarily as an object in the eyes of others
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Stereotype Threat
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An individual’s fast-acting, self-fulfilling fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype about his or her group
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Social Comparison
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The process by which individuals evaluate their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and abilities in relation to other people
→ Downward Social Comparisons: Comparisons with those we consider inferior to us |
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Conditions Under Which Attitudes Guide Actions
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When person’s attitudes are strong, when person shows strong awareness of attitudes and rehearses and practices them, when attitude is relevant to behavior, and when the person has a vested interest
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Cognitive Dissonance
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A concept developed by Festinger that states that an individual’s psychological discomfort (dissonance) is caused by two inconsistent thoughts
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Effort Justification
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One type of dissonance reduction where we try to rationalize the amount of effort we put into something
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Self-Perception Theory
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Daryl Bem’s theory about the connection between attitudes and behavior; stresses that individuals make inferences about their attitudes by perceiving their behavior
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Expertise or Credibility
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Makes other more likely to trust your opinion
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Foot-in-the-Door Strategy
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Involves presenting a weaker point at the beginning or making a small request with which the listeners will probably comply, saving the strongest point until the end
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Door-in-the-Face Strategy
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Involves a communicator’s making the strongest point or demand in the beginning, which the listeners will probably reject. Then a weaker point or a moderate “concessionary” demand is made toward the end
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Elaboration Likelihood Model
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Theory identifying two ways by which a communication can be persuasive⎯a central route and a peripheral route
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Altruism
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An unselfish interest in helping someone else
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Homo-Economicus
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The assumption that each person is out for his or her own gain
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Prosocial Behavior
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= Altruistic Behavior
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Reciprocity
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Concept that encourages us to do unto others as we would have them do unto us
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Egoism
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Giving to another person to ensure reciprocity; to gain self-esteem; to present oneself as powerful, competent, or caring; or to avoid social and self-censure for failing to live up to society’s expectations
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Empathy
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A feeling of oneness with the emotional state of another person
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Bystander Effect
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The tendency of an individual who observes an emergency to help less when other people are present than when the observer is alone
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Aggression
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Certain stimuli release innate aggressive responses; related to survival of the fittest
→ Aggressive behavior results from the stimulation of lower, more primitive areas of the brain → Neurotransmitters also highly linked to aggression - Learned through the process of reinforcement and observational learning - In general, males of all ages display more aggression than females |
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Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
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States that frustration always leads to aggression; has been disproved by later psychologists
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Gini Index
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Measure of income disparities between the richest and poorest citizens of a nation. The lower the Gini Index, the lower the income inequality, leading to lower crime rates
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Conformity
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Change in a person’s behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard
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Confederate
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A person who is given a role to play in a study so that social context can be manipulated
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Deindividuation
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The reduction of personal identity and erosion of the sense of personal responsibility that can arise when one is part of a group
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Social Contagion
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Imitative behavior involving the spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas
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Social Facilitation
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Improvement in an individual’s performance because of the presence of others
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Social Loafing
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Each person’s tendency to exert less effort in a group because of reduced accountability for individual effort
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Risky Shift
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The tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average decision made by individual group members
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Group Polarization Effect
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The solidification and further strengthening of an individual’s position as a consequence of a group discussion
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Groupthink
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Group members’ impaired decision making and avoidance of realistic appraisal to maintain group harmony
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Majority
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Exerts influence on group decision making through both informational and normative influence; usually wins out
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Minority
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Uses only informational pressure; succeeds through convincing former majority members of the correctness of their points of view
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Social Identity
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The way individuals define themselves in terms of their group membership
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Social Identity Theory
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Henry Tajfel’s theory that social identities are a crucial part of individuals’ self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about themselves
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In-Group
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A group that has special value to an individual, in comparison with other groups
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Out-Groups
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Other groups that an individual is not associated with has differences with the in-group; we often focus on these differences between the two
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Minimal Groups
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Group assignment is completely arbitrary and meaningless; proves our affinity for other members of a group
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Ethnocentrism
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The tendency to favor one’s own ethnic group over other groups
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Prejudice
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An unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individual’s membership in a group
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Explicit (Overt) Racism
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A person’s conscious and openly shared attitude
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Implicit (Covert) Racism
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Attitudes that exist on a deeper, hidden level
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Stereotype
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At the very root of prejudice; a generalization about a group
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Discrimination
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An unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because he or she is a member of that group
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Task-Oriented Cooperation
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An important feature of optimal intergroup contact, it involves working together on a shared goal
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Jigsaw Classroom
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Works by creating a situation in which all the students have to pull together to get the “big picture”
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Mere Exposure Effect
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The outcome that the more we encounter someone or something (a person, word, image, etc.), the more likely we are to start liking the person or thing even if we do not realize we have seen it before
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Consensual Validation
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Explains why people are attracted to others who are similar to them, as our own attitudes and behaviors are supported and validated
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Romantic (Passionate) Love
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The type of love that has strong components of sexuality and infatuation and often predominates in the early part of a love relationship
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Affectionate (Companionate) Love
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The type of love that occurs when individuals desire to have the other person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person
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Social Exchange Theory
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A theory based on the notion of social relationships as involving an exchange of goods, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits
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Investment Model
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A model emphasizing the ways that commitment, investment, and the availability of attractive alternative partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships
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Social Support
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Information and feedback from others that one is loved and cared for, esteemed and valued, and included in a network of communication and mutual obligation
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Tangible Assistance
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Family and friends can provide goods and services in stressful circumstances
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Information
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Individuals who provide support can also recommend specific actions and plans to help the person under stress cope more successfully
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Emotional Support
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Friends and family can reassure the person under stress that he or she is a valuable individual who is loved by others
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