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70 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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memory |
the processes that allow us to record and later retrieve experiences and info |
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why can HM remember old experiences but not new ones? |
-most of hippocampus removed to stop seizures -seizures stopped but: -unable to form new memories (new experiences don't make it to LT memory) -remembers experiences only prior to hippocampus removal |
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encoding |
getting information into the system by translating it into a neural code that the brain processes |
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storage
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retaining info over time |
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retrieval |
pulling info out of storage to access it when needed |
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how is memory like an information processing system? |
the mind encodes, stores, and retrieves information similarly to how computers work |
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three-component model of memory |
memory has 3 major components: 1. sensory memory 2. short-term/working memory 3. long term memory developed by Richard Atkinosn & Richard Shiffrin |
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what is sensory memory? |
-sensory memory holds incoming sensory info just long enough to be recognized -composed of 2 sensory registers (subsystems): 1. iconic store (visual sensory register) 2. echoic store (auditory sensory register) |
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does echoic or iconic memory last longer? |
echoic memory lasts longer: -visual (iconic) sensory memory is very brief (fraction of a second) -auditory (echoic) sensory memory lasts for approx 2 seconds and partial traces may linger longer |
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what happens to most sensory memory? |
most info in sensory memory fades away due to limited attention capabilities selective attention allows a small portion to enter short term/working memory |
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how does sensory memory go into short term memory? |
selective attention -> memory codes -> ST memory |
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What are memory codes? What are the 4 types & how do they work? |
Memory Codes are mental representations (often do not correspond to the form of original stimulus) Types: 1. Visual Encoding: form mental image 2. Phonological Encoding: code by sound 3. Semantic Encoding: focus on meaning of stimulus 4. Motor Encoding: code patterns of movement |
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2 limitations of short term memory? |
1. Limited Capacity: ST memory can only hold a limited amount of info at a time (5-6 items at a time) 2. Limited Duration: rapid forgetting |
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how to overcome ST memory's limited capacity and why does this method work? |
Mnemonic devices such as chunking: combining individual items into larger units of meaning greatly improves recall because ST's limit is concerned with the number of meaningful units that can be recalled *organization & imagery help too |
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2 ways to overcome ST memory's limited duration? |
1. maintenance rehearsal: simple repetition 2. elaborative rehearsal: focusing on the meaning of the information or relating it to other things you already know (more effective) |
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why do researchers prefer to call ST memory "working memory" |
ST memory is more than just info storage; it is always working: constantly categorizes, catalogues, and cross-references new material (processes info and supports problem solving) |
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3 components of working memory + control process |
1. Phonological loop ( auditory phonological memory ) when u repeat something mentally 2. Visuospatial sketchpad (visual-spatial working memory) temp storage/manipulation of spatial info 3. Episodic buffer : temporarystorage space where information from LTM, phonological loop and visual spatialsketchpad can be integrated central executive: a control process of directing attention and action (decided how much attention to allocate to rehearsal) |
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serial position effect & why is it U-shaped? |
recall is influenced by a word's position in a series of items U-shaped due: 1. primacy effect (remember beginning of list: rehearsing causes ST -> LT) 2. recency effect (remember end of list: words in ST) |
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how to make primacy effect disappear? |
present words at a faster rate (too quick to rehearse in mind so words cannot be transferred from ST to LT memory) |
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how to prevent recency effect? |
-delay recall test (15-30 second delay is enough) -prevent rehearsing of terms |
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automatic processing |
encoding that occurs without intention and requires minimal attention |
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effortful processing |
encoding that is initiated intentionally and requires conscious attention |
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what type of info is often encoded automatically? |
frequency, spatial location, sequence, and timing of events |
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3 levels of processing (in order from shallowest to deepest) |
1. structural (focus on physical features) 2. phonetic (focuses on sound) 3. semantic (focuses on meaning) |
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3 types of imagery encoding |
1. Propositional Coding: visual spatial info stored as descriptions 2. Analog Coding: stored as mental images 3. Dual-coding hypothesis: using verbal and non-verbal (visual) codes for one thing -Pavio |
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why are concrete words stored better than abstract words? |
concrete words are stored twice in LT memory (dual-coding hypothesis: once as pic, once as word; uses visual and verbal codes) |
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why do hierarchies enhance our memory? |
-association enhances memory -logical hierarchies enhance our understanding of how the elements are related -each category can serve as a memory cue for the associated items below it -greater possibility of using imagery as a supplemental memory code |
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mnemonic devices |
any sort of memory aid (acronyms, hierarchies, chunking) |
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why do some researchers argue that acronyms dont aid memory? what concept explains mnemonic devices stimulate recall? |
-acronyms are only useful when you are already familiar with the info -should already have encoded the words the letters stand for in LT memory -associative networks explain why mnemonic devices stimulate recall (saying an acronym activates the nodes with the specific info and primes for related concepts) |
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method of loci |
-forming images that link items to places -helps you imagine yourself in the environment (uses all 3 components of ST memory: episodic buffer, visual-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop & central executive) |
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what are schemas and how do they influence expertise? |
a schema is a mental organizer/framework -creates a perceptual set (a readiness to perceive (organize & interpret) information in a certain way) -more developed schemas = exptertise |
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what is a node? |
each concept/ unit of info in a network |
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what is priming? |
spreading activation of related concepts (one concept activates another) |
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associative networks vs neural networks |
associative: each node represents a concept or unit of information neural: each piece of info is represented by multiple nodes (patterns of simultaneously activated nodes) |
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4 types of LT memory and their sub categories |
1. Declarative Memory-factual knowledge -semantic (general facts) -episodic (personal experiences) 2. Procedural Memory-skills & actions -motor & cognitive skills -classical conditioning responses 3. Explicit Memory: conscious/intentional memory retrieval ex: recognition with cued recall, exams 4. Implicit Memory: unconscious/unintentional memory retrieval ex: driving, brushing teeth |
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retrieval cues and one example? |
any stimulus (external or internal) that stimulates the activation of info stored in LT memory ex: priming |
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why do multiple, self-generated cues enhance recall? |
self-generated cues involves deeper, more elaborative rehearsal with multiple cues, if one fails, then another may activate the memory makes the cues more distinctive and more meaningful/easier to recall |
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what are flashbulb memories & are they always accurate? |
vivid, clear memories that are easily recalled ex: 9/11, death of princess diana not always accurate, people remember incorrectly, confidence does not equal accuracy |
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encoding specificity principle |
memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match the conditions that were present while encoding |
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3 conditions that enhance memory |
1. Context dependent recall (same environment-external cue) 2. State-dependent recall (same internal state-internal cue) 3. Mood congruent recall (same mood) |
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ebbinghaus's forgetting curve |
rapid loss of memory at first, then it slows down because memory loss slows |
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encoding failure |
cannot recall because details are not meaningful enough to remember, or did not encode deeply to due distractions
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decay of memory trace & why it was disproven |
decay theory-with time and disuse the memory trace in the NS fades away
reminiscence (recalling more material on second test) disproves decay theory |
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interference theory |
forgetting information because other items in LT memory impair our ability to retrieve it |
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2 types of interference |
1. Proactive interference: remember old info bc material learned in past interferes with ability to recall new info 2. Retroactive interference: remember new info bc new info interferes with ability to recall info learned earlier |
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Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon and is it reliable? |
we recall related info that makes us think we know the answer, but in some cases, TOT is illusory |
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repression |
-motivated forgetting -blocking out anxiety-arousing memories -some evidence supports , some evidence does not (if we havent though about something for a while did we really forget it?) |
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retrograde amnesia vs anterograde amnesia |
retrograde: memory loss for events PRIOR to onset of amnesia (cant remember before) anterograde: memory loss for events AFTER onset of amnesia (cant remember after, ex: HM) |
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korsakoff's syndrome |
-results from chronic alcoholism -can cause anterograde & retrograde amnesia |
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Dementia |
impaired memory & other cognitive deficits that accompany brain degeneration & interfere with normal functioning |
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what does Alzheimer's Disease (AD) cause, how does it start to affect the brain & which neurotransmitter system does it affect? |
AD is a progressive brain disorder that causes dementia AD attakcs subcortical temporal lobe regions (near hippocampus and then hippocampus) acetylcholine most affected |
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brain characteristics of AD? which gene is a risk? |
Plaques: clumps of protein fragments that build up on the outside neurons Tangles: fibres that get twisted and wound together within neurons ApoE (on chromosome pair 19) is a risk |
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3 causes of infantile (childhood amnesia) |
1. brain regions still immature 2. deep encoding does not occur so we do not form good retrieval cues 3. lack of self-concept so infants dont have a frame of reference to organize memories around |
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before what age do people not remember childhood events and what is the exception? |
people dont remember what happened before the ages of 2-4 but sometimes major events (such as death or birth) are exceptions |
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retrospective memory |
memory for past events |
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prospective memory & what enhances this |
memory for remembering activities to do in future we typically forget this event though the memories involve little content but planning and allocating attention while performing other tasks helps |
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what is an issue with memory construction? give an example |
it can be biased ex: remembering high school grades with a positive bias (remembering B's as A's) |
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Bartlett's the War of the Ghosts |
when retelling the story, they reconstructed it in a way that was consistent with their beliefs (different than the actual story) |
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what is the 'cognitive price' of schemas? |
they help us organize info as we encode and retrieve it but it can also lead to memory distortion because we reshape info to fit with our pre-existing assumptions of the world |
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memory construction & boundary extension & when its less likely to occur |
we remember a broader scene than the one we saw |
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misinformation effect & an example |
information that occurs after an event can shape the construction of the event subtle things can cause it ex: mistaken eyewitness testimonies how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other vs how fast they were going when they contacted/bumped each other |
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source confusion (source monitoring error) and how it affects eyewitnesses |
recall something as familiar but forget where we encountered it eyewitnesses who look through a lineup and are called back later to look through another line-up can easily identify an innocent person as the perpetrator bc their face looks familiar but they forgot that they only saw them in the line up not at the crime |
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which part of the brain is highly involved with working memory processes? |
the prefrontal lobe, especially the prefrontal cortex |
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role of hippocampus? |
-encoding and retrieval of declarative memory -memory consolidation |
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role of cerebral cortex? |
stores declarative memories across distributed sites |
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role of thalamus? what happens when its damaged? |
encoding of new memories & retrieval of old memories damage can result in severe and permanent retrograde and anterograde amnesia |
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role of amygdala? what happens when damaged? |
encodes emotionally arousing stimuli and helps form long term memories that stir our emotions damage results in loss of memory advantage from emotionally arousing stimuli |
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role of cerebellum? damage? |
forms procedural memories damage affects conditioned resposes |
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what is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the brain? |
glutamate |
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what is long-term potentiation? |
an increase in synaptic strength that occurs during memory consolidation when LT memories are being formed |
