Psych 100

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psychology

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the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

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empiricism

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view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experimentation

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structuralism

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an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

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basic research

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pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

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applied research

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scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

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counseling psychology

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a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

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clinical psychology

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a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

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psychiatry

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a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

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hindsight bias

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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

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critical thinking

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Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

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theory

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an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

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hypothesis

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a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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operational definition

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a statement of the procedures used to define research variables (for example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures)

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replication

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repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

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case study

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an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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survey

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a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

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false consensus effect

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the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

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population

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all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

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random sample

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a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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naturalistic observation

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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

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correlation

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a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1

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scatterplot

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a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

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experiment

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a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

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double-blind procedure

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an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

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placebo

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experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent

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experimental condition

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the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

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control condition

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the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

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random assignment

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assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

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independent variable

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the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

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dependent variable

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the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

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mode

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the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

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mean

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the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

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median

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the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

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range

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the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

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standard deviation

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a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

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statistical significance

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a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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biological psychology

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a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

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neuron

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a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

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dendrite

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the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

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axon

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the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

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myelin sheath

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a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

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action potential

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a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. the action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane

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synapse

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the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft

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neurotransmitters

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chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

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acetylcholine

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a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

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endorphins

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"morphine within" - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

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nervous system

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the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

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central nervous system

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the brain and spinal cord

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peripheral nervous system

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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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nerves

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neural "cables" containing many axons. these bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

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sensory neurons

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neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

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motor neurons

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neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

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interneurons

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central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

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somatic nervous system

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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (aka skeletal nervous system)

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autonomic nervous system

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the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. It's sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

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sympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

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parasympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

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reflex

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a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

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neural networks

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interconnected neural cells. with experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce results. computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning

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endocrine system

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the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

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hormones

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chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

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adrenal glands

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a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. the adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine which help to arouse the body in times of stress

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pituitary gland

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the endocrine system's most influential gland. under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

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lesion

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tissue destruction. a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

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electroencephalogram (EEG)

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an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

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PET (positron emission tomography)

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a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive from of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

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a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

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fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

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a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function

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brainstem

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the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

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medulla

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the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

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reticular formation

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a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

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thalamus

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the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

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cerebellum

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the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

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limbic system

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a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

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amygdala

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two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

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hypothalamus

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a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

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cerebral cortex

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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

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glial cells

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cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

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frontal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

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parietal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

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occipital lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

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temporal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear

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motor cortex

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an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

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sensory cortex

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the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

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association areas

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areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

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aphasia

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impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

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Broca's area

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controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

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Wernicke's area

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controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

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plasticity

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the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

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corpus callosum

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the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

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split brain

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a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers between them