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231 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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5 Foundations of Psych
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evolution (genes make brains)
materialism (brains make minds) idealism (minds make reality) modularity (the mind is a collection of parts) empiricism (believe only what you can count) |
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Marr's Levels of Analysis
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computation (problem-evolution)
algorithm (procedure-mind) implementation (solution-brain) |
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Functionalism
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mind should be explained in terms of function of the human body in a given environment
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Branches of Psych Study
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experimental:
cognitive (program for brain) developmental (thru life) abnormal (wrong) personality (differences) social (interactions) |
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Naturalistic Fallacy
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things are right because they are natural (is does not make ought)
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Deterministic Fallacy
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things are inevitable because they are natural (humans can choose to disobey their genes)
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Nature versus Nurture
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Nature AND Nurture
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Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation
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our environments have changed more rapidly than genes, no longer appropriate for specializations
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"Right Stuff" for women
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good genes
can secure resources will stick around |
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"Right Stuff" for men
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good genes
is fertile will have sex |
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Standards of Beauty
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different across cultures but can still tell *within* a culture
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Jealousy
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men-raising other's offspring
women-losing resources |
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"Brain cells fire in patterns."
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patterns of neural firing for various stimuli (particular neurons, rhythm?)
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Dualism
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Decartes, mental and physical events separate
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Materialism
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A B mental
^ ^ C-----D physical |
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Localization of Function
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different parts of brain responsible for different parts of overall cognitive process (damage ruins particular function)
implies mulitple and overlapping cognitive processes |
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Methods of Localization
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accident
manipulation--nonhuman non-invasive measurements |
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Phrenology
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(Gall) wrong about bump formation and trait association, right about localization
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Brain Organization, Z
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luxuries
necessities |
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Brain Organization, Y
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various lobes
occipital (vision) parietal (attn, spatial, counting) temporal (hearing, language, recognition) frontal (reasoning, executive control) *info flow through thalamus |
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Standards of Beauty
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different across cultures but can still tell *within* a culture
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Jealousy
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men-raising other's offspring
women-losing resources |
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"Brain cells fire in patterns."
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patterns of neural firing for various stimuli (particular neurons, rhythm?)
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Dualism
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Decartes, mental and physical events separate
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Materialism
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A B mental
^ ^ C-----D physical |
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Brain Organization, X
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Left (right control, linguistic analysis, specifics)
Right (left control, paralinguistic analysis, generalities) |
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What makes human brain distinct?
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relative size of brain, folding (sulcus), percent of cortical volume made up of frontal lobe, genome
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Conscious and Unconscious
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in conflict, consciousness is recent development
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Evidence of Power of Unconscious
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unconscious:
learning filtering (cocktail party) priming |
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Consciousness
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controls the automatic reaction by operating over other modules
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Failure of Control of Consciousness
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bad habits
ironic rebound |
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Illusion of Control of Consciousness
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believe that if you have acted on something then you have more control
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Method
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rules/tech to avoid problems associated with observation
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Problems with Empiricism in Pysch
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complexity of brain
variability of humans reactivity of subjects |
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operational definition
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used to measure an abstract property
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construct validity
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(defining) tendency for clear conceptual relation to exist between abstract and operational
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predictive validity
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(defining) tendency for operational definitions to be related to each other
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reliability
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(measuring) tendency for measure to produce the same result when it is used to measure the same thing
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disciminant validity
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(measuring) tendency for measure to produce different results when used to measure different things
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demand characteristics of subject bias
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aspects of observational setting that make people observe as they think observers want them to
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avoiding subject bias
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anonymity, measure involuntary or nonobvious behavior, keep subject blind to hypothesis
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avoiding observer bias
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double-blind to eliminate expectations
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correlation enables prediction...
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...but does not imply causation! (may be a third variable)
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experiments
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establish causal relationship between variables through manipulation, control, and measurement
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experimental controls
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holding constant
random assignment |
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blindsight
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info at sensation but not perception level
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distal senses
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olfaction, vision, audition
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proximal senses
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touch, taste
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sensation (as compared to perception)
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changes in world create changes in state of brain
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perception
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changes in states brain give rise to conscious experience of world
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blindsight
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info at sensation but not perception level
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distal senses
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olfaction, vision, audition
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proximal senses
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touch, taste
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vision modularity
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what pathway
where pathway |
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"what" pathway
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primary visual to temporal lobe (damage=agnosia)
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"where" pathway
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primary visual to occipital lobe to parietal lobe (damage=hemispatial neglect, grasping deficits)
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Weber's Law
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the brain is a percent-of-change detector, it is relative change that matters
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Where do we get our theories about the world?
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experience (variant aspects of environment)
hard-wiring (invariant aspects of environment) |
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sensation
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discriminating stimuli
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reflex
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hardwired stimulus-response circuits
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habituation
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"circuit-breaker"
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Characteristics of Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning...Predicting
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learn associations (pair UCS with CS)
learn sloppily (generalization) learn sparingly (blocking) learn slowly (latent inhibition) unlearn slowly (extinction) relearn quickly (spontaneous recovery) ...optimizes learning |
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Operant Conditioning
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1) repeat what works
2) optimize responses |
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Law of Effect
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satisfying results, association strengthened
annoying results, association weakened |
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varieties of reinforcement
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Continuous
Partial (ratio/interval, fixed/variable) shapes responses... |
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positive v negative reinforcement
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reward v punishment
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radical behaviorism
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ALL behavior is a reuslt of its reinforcement history
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Blank Slate hypothesis
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we come into the world without any preconceived notions
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Biological Preparedness hypothesis
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certain associations are easier to establish
...some things we don't learn |
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memory subsystems
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sensory (iconic, echoic)
working (consciousness, limited capacity) long term (explicit-semantic and episodic, implicit-priming and procedural) |
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explicit memory
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can be verbilized, conscious
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implicit memory
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can't be verbilized, unconscious
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distributed representation
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different neural patterns represent different things, overlap
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semantic explicit memory
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factual info picked up over lifetime, overlap in neurons=overlap in features, Lexical Decision Task
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episodic explicit memory
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episodes from the past, encoding as the event takes place (to retrieve, reinstantiate the distributed representation)
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retrieval cues
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can serve as "seed" for reinstatntiations (a few of the neurons)
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levels of processing
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deep aspects of stimulus encode better than shallow aspects (also, wider number of retrieval cues)
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encoding specificity
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better retrieval cues overlap with those avilable during encoding
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context dependence
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better retrieval if in same physical or metnal state as during encoding
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Serial Position Effect
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in list, remember words at the beginning and end better (primacy and recency effects)
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Where are distributed representations in the brain?
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the hippocampus, "convergence zone"
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amnesia
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anterograde--no new memories
retrograde--no past memories |
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consolidation
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leads to memories being stored outside the hippocampus, teaches the rest of the brain
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Is implicit memory affected by brain damage?
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Not necessarily. Patients perform about the same on word stem completion after priming. And on star-tracing.
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7 Sins of Memory, forgetting
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absentmindedness (encoding stage)
transience (encoding stage) blocking (retrieval stage) |
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7 Sins of Memory, distortion
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bias
misattribution suggestibility |
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7th Sin of Memory
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persistence, can't get haunting thought out of mind (accompanied by strong emotion)
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absentmindedness
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problem with attention from sensory to working memory
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transience
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problem with working memory, not enough rehearsal and elaboration for deep encoding into long term memory
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blocking
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activation of a memory inhibits activation of partially overlapping memory representations (ie TOT)
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bias (during encoding or retrieval)
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our mind fills in the "gaps" even if there is nothing (because prefrontal cortex of the brain pre-process a memory before sending to hippocampus)
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misattribution
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incorrectly acertain whether distributed representation has external or internal origins (source attribution)
...The False Fame Effect |
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suggestibility
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creating a memory from scratch
...false accusations |
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How long is each REM cycle?
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90 min, looks like awake state
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How do cetaceans sleep?
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one brain hemisphere at a time
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brain activity during sleep
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non-REM: thalamus stops sending info to cortex, cortical regions communicate less
REM: pons signals thalamus which *selectively* sends info to cortex (NOT to prefrontal cortex for higher order reasoning) |
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pons
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sends message to thalamus about every 90 min, inhibits spinal cord to cause sleep paralysis
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Why do we sleep?
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energy conservation and safety during low-productivity
body restoration and growth memory consolidation and insight |
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What kind of memory does sleep enhance?
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procedural (# sequence), episodic (word list), insight (# trick)
(memory consolidation?) |
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HOW does memory improve during sleep?
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hippocampus replays distributed representation pattern during sleep
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natural circadian rhythms
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become out of sync without external cues
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sleep and aging
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amount of (and proportion of REM) sleep decreases with age
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dream theories
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Freud--dreams as guardian of sleep (consciousness goes to sleep so that bad ideas an appear as less-threatening dreams)
Hobson--activation-synthesis model (making sense of strange brain activity) |
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latent v manifest content
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what unconscious tries to convey v what we consiously think about
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What "stance" do humans usually take?
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the intentional stance (understanding others' mental states to understand others' behavior)
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centrality of the "social illusion"
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we see emotions and intention everywhere
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brain and social behavior
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cortical volume is related to social group size, default brain activity is higher for social cognition
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Where is the brain activity for the pain of social exclusion?
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the ACC
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Who fails the False Belief Test?
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young children, autisic
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How do humans engage in "mind-melding"?
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language, emotions, teaching
...thus, hard to deceive |
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How do we line our own minds up with the minds of the others?
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physiological linkage, chameleon effect
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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tendency to attribute behavior to internal mental causes than external situational causes
...even the subjects start to believe it! |
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obedience to authority
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we tend to do what authorities say just because they tell us to (ie Milgram shock experiments)
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WHY obedience to authority?
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long personal history
evolutionarily |
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consistency
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we want to be viewed as consistent
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conformity (social proof)
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we tend to do what others do, but if a single confederate in an experiment differs then there is no conformity
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diffusion of responsibility
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individuals feel dimished responsiblity for their actions when they are surrounded by others acting the same way
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pros of group living
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coordinated knowledge
norms of behavior |
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cons of group living
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intragroup competition
intergroup competition outgroup derogation |
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coordinated knowledge
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using old knowledge, pass on new knowledge
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norms of behavior
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customary standards for behavior shared by members of a culture, can't all be hard-wired so use group to establish rules
ie fairness, reciprocity, "culture of honor" |
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door-in-the-face technique
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related to norm of reciprocity, we feel as though a concession has been made
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How do we pick up norms of behavior?
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by watching adult behavior (pick up NORMS, not just behavior)
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intragroup competition
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most danger comes from competition with others, bigger groups can cheat undetected
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intergroup conflict
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creation of minimal groups for allocation of resources
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aspects of outgroup derogation
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neglecting variability, illusory correlation, implicit prejudice
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neglecting variability
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assimilation (perceiving too little intra variability) and contrast (percieving too much inter variability)
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illusory correlation
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tend to correlate rare things in our mind...stereotyping
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implicit prejudice
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measured by the IAT
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IATs
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implicit association tests, more likely to show negative when stressed or rushed
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What are the problems with personality psychology?
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science deals with aggregates, the power of situation (FAE-people tend to been seen in same situations), promotes categorization (wrong variability)
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Why categorize (types, themes, traits)?
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too little info to talk about people generally, too much effort to evaluate everyone individually
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problems with personality types
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how many types?
construct validity? |
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problems with personality themes (ie Freud)?
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observer bias and validity of "access of the unconscious" (such as TATs)
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personality traits
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dimensions of Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion
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problems with personality traits
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lack of insight (peers evaluate better), reactivity (subject bias of themselves)
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Whence personality?
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variability *across* individuals comes from both genes and environment, "temperament" is in place young and stable over time (c/o Kagan)
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human infants are born...
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...precocial (need to develop adult cognitive algorithms)
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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
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1) constructivism
2) stages of development |
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constructivism
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children are active explorers and construct their knowledge of world based on experiences (mechanisms to get started and build on...like behaviorism)
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constructivist theory building
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assimilation (translate info)
accomodation (revise knowledge in response to experiences) equilibration (balance to create stable understanding) |
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sensorimotor stage
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birth-2, basic motor systems, sensory/perceptual systems, learning mechanisms, live in the present
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failures of sensorimotor stage
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object permanence
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preoperational stage
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2-6, language/imagery/symbolic thought, no reversible operations, centration on single aspect of event
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failures of preoperational stage
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conservation, transitivity, egocentricity, appearance v reality
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concrete operational stage
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6-12, logical reasoning about concrete things, hard to think abstractly and systematically
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failures of concrete operational stage
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systematic testing
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formal operational stage
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12+, abstractions and hypotheticals, systematic "experiments" to draw conclusions about world
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problems with Piaget
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1) poverty of experience
2) inconsistency of timeline ...before they could have tested through interactions with world |
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preferential looking
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habituate and test with novel, to test what infants know, more fair
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infants knowledge of physical world
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coherence, continuity, contact, gravity
...counters theory of failure of object permanence |
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variability in stages
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children may pass conservation test, egocentricity test, etc. adults may fail egocentricity test (false concensus)
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domain general v domain specific
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Piaget focused on central executive, but possible that nonconscious modules first develop independently (have different agendas, no override)
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frontal cortex
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central executive for reasoning, delayed development
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phenomenon resulting from delay of development of the central executive
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perseveration, delay of gratification
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transfer of ideas
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idea--semantics--words--syntax--phonology--sounds
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semantics
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the meaning of language
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the parsing problem
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how to determine the discrete terms of language from a speech stream (solved via statistics...)
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the reference problem
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how to determine what words refer to
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How is the reference problem solved?
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social referencing (what is intended), novelty matching (assume new word applies to new thing), intentionality (can't refer to accidents), category assumption (communicate max info)
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phonology
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sounds of language
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detection and discrimination
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we put up with variability in sound (*categorical* perception)
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How early can we discriminate non-native languge sounds?
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infants can
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progression of sound production
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cooing (vowels) to babbling (consonants)
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syntax
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structure of language (ie grammar)
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Noam Chomsky's "Universal Grammar"
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making infinite use of finite terms, rules (grammar) and words (meaning) are separable
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Broca's aphasia
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problems with grammar
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Wernicke's aphasia
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problems with words
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How do children learn the rules of their language?
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instinctually but triggered by environmental cues (not instruction, imitation, or reinforcement)
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What hemispheres of the brain are involved in language learning?
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native--left, non-native--right
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critical period for language acquisition
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about 12 yr
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implicature
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listens expect certain things of speakers
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other aspects of pragmatics
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tone, conversation, fillers, body language
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Chimps acquiring language?
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cannot learn grammar
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prospecting
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uniquely human ability to think about far-future events
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expected utility theory
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expected value=odds of gain x value of gain
...but people do not always follow this in making decisions |
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sample size neglect (error of odds)
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we tend to base our decisions on few experiences but really the law of large numbers holds
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gambler's fallacy (error of odds)
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belief that the likelihood of a chance event is influenced by the nature of the events that proceeded it (actually independent events)
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conjunction fallacy (error of odds)
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belief that some combinations of events are more probable than individual events alone
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How do we wrongly calculate "odds"?
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avilability bias (what *seems* to be likely), planning fallacy (we are bad at projecting, hard to imagine all the little things)
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presentism (error of valuation)
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we focus on now when thinking about how we would think/feel in the future for making decisions (believe that we would want variety, not look at other comparisons etc)
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comparing to the past (error of valuation)
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we want things to get better, evaluate things based on past experience
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Prospect Theory (error of valuation)
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subjective value doesn't necessarily agree with objective value, a sigmoidal curve (small values=greater diferences, steeper for losses that gain--the endowment effect)
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temporal discounting
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like delay of gratification, more later is better than less sooner but only when both "sooner" and "later" are in the distant future. otherwise want it immediately.
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general intelligence
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measurement g, tends to correlate across categories (much seems to be genetic)
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The Flynn Effect
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humans have been getting more intelligent over time, gain in fluid intelligence (the less constrained knowledge)
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What does affect measure?
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how well things are going in environment right now (ie evolutionary sucess at the moment)
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affect is...
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...valenced (good or bad) and generally automatic and uncontrolled
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What system controls affect?
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the limbic system (separate from cognitive control)
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How and why is affect separate from cognitive control?
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it is an evolutionary advantage, use both to make the best decision
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What does arousal measure?
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monitors bodily states, assessing what is needed right now (value judgments in making decisions)
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What part of the brain is involved in arousal?
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ventromedial prefrontal cortex
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misattribution of arousal studies
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bridge, pill and cheating, hearbeat in headphones
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misattribution of lack of arousal phenomenon
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capgras syndrome (fear that someone has been replaced by an exactly identical copy)
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What are the consequences of ventromedial prefrontal cortex damage?
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inability to use affect to guide behavior (risky), more "rational" moral judgment
...Phineas Gage |
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3 Features of Emotion
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change in brain state, interpretation of feelings, emotional expression
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How can change in brain state lead to "false alarm" emotion?
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high road (accurate but slow) tells us things are not as dangerous as they seem, but low road passes the cortex and just goes through thalamus leading to false alarm
...guides thought and behavior |
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brain part associated with fear? disgust?
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amygdala, insula
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What are the consequences of amygdala damage in humans?
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can't adapt to fear responses, affects social interactions (very trusting)
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separable systems for positive emotion
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dopamine (things going right), seratonin (prosocial positivity)
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What is the difference between affect as arousal and as emotion?
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arousal is measured as continuum and emotion is more discrete and not really valenced (qualitatively different and so hard to label and interpret)
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cultural differences in emotion
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special terms, display norms, but *the expressions themselves are universal*
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6 basic emotions (for all cultures, ages)
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disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, anger, surprise
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genuine v fake emotion
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different cognitive control involved, notably different
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How is emotional expression indicative of evolution?
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we get our face into the position to experience something (physically adaptive)
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Why do humans express emotion?
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to communicate our mental states to other people directly
...humans make more expressions than others |
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What is the difference between arousal and emotion in terms of what is being *measured*?
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arousal measures whether things are generally right/wrong around us, emotion gauges what is specifically right/wrong
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history of abnormal psych
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witches, Bedlam Hospital in London
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nosology
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classification of disorder
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etiology
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cause of disorder
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treatment
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care of disorder
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pyschopathology
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physical illness that drastically impairs normal cognitive function
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What is the difference between neuropsychology v psychopathology?
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looking at effect on cognition by overt v covert brain injury
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diathesis-stress model of psychopathology
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etiology=genetics (diathesis proclivity) + environment (stressor)
...leads to disorder |
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How and why do we classify disorders?
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with the DSM, for understanding and treatment
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Medical Student Syndrome
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learn about disorder so start to think you have it
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problems with psychopathological classification
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classification based on symptoms (similar, broad, misunderstood); continual v discrete causes (label affects treatment); co-morbidity likely; ethnic/cultural considerations (some disorders don't "occur"); threshold?
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three categories of disorders in DSM which we studied
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anxiety, mood, psychotic (ie schizophrenia)
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What does the DSM do?
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attempt to define the breakpoint of normal/abnormal for disorders; classifies disorders based on affect, behavior, cognition
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anxiety disorders
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unabiding sense of dread
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generalized anxiety disorder
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future, excessive and constant worry
treatment: conditioning behavior to relax |
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panic disorder
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body, sudden periodic panic attacks without any real trigger (in tune with body)
treatment: show that feelings of panic are okay |
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phobia
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object/event, excessive or unreasonable fear, avoid situation, some quite common
treatment: systematic desensitization |
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OCD
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thought, obsessions and compulsions not always related, affects ACC (alerts to wrong in environment)
treatment: extinction |
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PTSD
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past experiences, persistent reexperiencing of trauma, avoid stimuli becaused increased arousal
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depression (mood disorder)
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inescapable sadness leading to changes in behavior, many relapses
treatment: electroconvulsive shock therapy when other meds not working |
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bipolor disorder (mood disorder)
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cycle of depression + mania (total euphoria in activity, etc in which one often makes bad decisions)
treatment: lithium (lose highs) |
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How are disorders treated to change affect? to change behavior?
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affect (pyschopharmacology for brain's chemistry ie neurotransmitters)
behavior (CBT therapy, challenge to prevent problems in future) |
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positive schizophrenia symptoms
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delusional beliefs, hallucinations, disorganized thought/speech, inappropriate affect for content
...come first |
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negative schizophrenia symptoms
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no motivation, social activity, speech, concentration, affect, movement (catatonia)
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themes of psych
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complexity from simplicity
reality is an invention mind is modular evolution selects, consciousness corrects humans are social |
