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98 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Kuhn's (1970) three distinct stages of scientific development :
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Early Developmental Stage:
Normal Science Period of Scientific Revolution |
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Steps taken by the Schools of Thought
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Schools of thought, to be scientific, must first (1) define the phenomenon of Personality – 5 questions.
After defining the phenomenon, the scientist must decide (2) how they are going to study it? Then the scientist must decide (3) what type of data is acceptable. |
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Step 4 Each theorist will wrestle with the following controversies
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Philosophical view of the person or of human nature
Nature vs Nurture How important is consistency of personality over time and across situations? Is the concept of a “self” important in understanding and predicting personality |
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Step 4, Controversies, cont.
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How important is the idea of varying states of consciousness to the understanding of personality, and what is the nature of our unconscious behavior
How important is the person’s past, present, and/or future on understanding their personality? |
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To evaluate each theory
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Is it comprehensive (its bandwidth) and does it describe/predict particular aspects of personality (specificity or fidelity)
How parsimonious? – is it too complex and convoluted? Can we explain and predict the phenomenon with less complexity? Relevance of research – does it generate ideas for research and can it generate research that is open to the negative test (prove the hypothesis is not true). |
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Step 1 Defining Personality
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WHAT makes it up or WHAT is it composed of?- STRUCTURE
WHY do we do what we do? This looks into Motivation.- PROCESS HOW does it form? Does it develop or change over time? What is Psychopathology? Can we change our personalities? |
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Structure
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Is it behavior that makes us unique or different from others?
Is it what we think or feel? Is it a result of conflicting psychological components that develop during our childhood? Is it a product of our biological reactivity and the environmental experiences we have during our lifetime? |
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Process/motivation
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Three types of motivation theory:
a. Pleasure/hedonic motivation tension reduction models (hungry so eat) -incentive models (want power so bully others) b.growth or self-actualization motives competence motivation c. cognitive motives – need to understand or predict events in our world ex. Dating the same type of person over and over again. |
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Growth and Development
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Some theories look at Genetic determinants (Traits or Temperaments),
others look at biological instincts. Others look at Environmental Determinants (Culture, social class, family, and/or peers). Questions include: What makes people in a family alike? What makes people in a family different? |
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Questions 4 and 5
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What is psychopathology and what makes people change or resist change will be discussed by each School of thought.
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Step 2 how they are going to study it?
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3 primary types of research methodology
Clinical Case studies, Correlational Studies, and Experiments. This is discussed in Chapter 2. |
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Step 3 What type of data is acceptable?
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There are 4 types:
Life Data Observational Data, Test data and Self Report. Know and be able to recognize each of these! |
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The same research approach can use different types of data
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Behavioralists and Humanists both use the experimental approach to scientific study, but they use very different types of data.
Certain types of data lend themselves to certain types of approaches to study. So T data is used often in Experimental approaches. However, 1 type of study can use more than 1 type of data. So experimental approaches are not limited to using T data. Experimenters can gather L,O data or S data, too. |
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Absolute Value of a Correlation
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The strength of the relationship between the two variables is described statistically as a number – a correlation coefficient – symbolized by the letter r.
The absolute value of Correlation coefficients range from a value of 0 to 1.00 A correlation coefficient of 1.00 is the strongest value you can have. It is called a perfect correlation. It means that for every unit of change in Variable A, there is a corresponding unit of change in Variable B – and only one value for Variable A is associated with one and only one value in Variable B. |
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Absolute Value of a Correlation
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Perfect correlations are rare in psychology
A correlation coefficient of 0 means there is no correlation between the two variables. They do not seem to be related at all. A moderately high correlation in psychology is anything from .55 to .80. Correlations greater than .80 (.81-.99) are very exciting. |
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Definition of Clinical Study and examples
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Clinical approach includes case study, interview, and analysis of personal documents
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Potential Strengths (4)
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1. leads to in depth study of individuals. Good for generating ideas and developing hypotheses
2. Study the full complexity of person-environment relationships. - no artificiality 3. Study the development and adjustment process (a type of longitudinal study) 4. can be used for rare probs. or probs. that would be unethical to reproduce (multi personality., Wild boy of Averron, coping with separating Siamese twins) |
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Potential Weaknesses (5)
of Clinical (case study, interview) ex. measurements for case study? |
1.leads to unsystematic observation – measurements may not be reliable
2. can have subjective interpretation of the data (researcher biases) 3. Can have systematic alterations in the recall of information (subject biases) 4. entangled relationships among variables - which came first. NO DETERMINING CAUSALITY. 5. Very small sample size. Can’t generalize to the whole pop. with data gathered from a few people. Subject unrepresentative of people as a whole? |
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Correlational Studies
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Def. – larger numbers of people are studied-
-they are observed, measured, interviewed, or complete questionnaires/tests, but there is no manipulation -A great deal of information can be obtained from this approach, but the people, or participants, are taken “as they are - naturally occurring” and are not subjected to any kind of “treatment” or variable that is artificially controlled by the researcher. You will still have an independent variable (how the groups are divided), and a dependent variable (the variable you are interested in measuring), but there is no manipulation |
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Correlational Studies, Examples
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Ex. 1 Gender and Aggression – observe children and count aggressive behaviors displayed in playground. Divide them by male vs female. (Naturalistic Study)
Ex. 2 Gender and Aggression – ask female and male college students to list the types of TV shows they watch and how much time they watch them. |
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Problems with the term “Correlational” study
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People mistakenly think that any study with Correlational statistics is a Correlational study, and this is not true. All 3 approaches CAN use Correlational statistics.
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Potential Strengths (6)
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1. Large sample size =get a broad base of people so better able to generalize to people as a whole.
2. can study a wide range of variables about the people studied. 3. can study rels among these many variables. 4. can do research that would be unethical to do or reproduce in a lab. 5. allows for research that uses variables that cannot be manipulated (i.e. shoe size) 6. no artificial setting - can see the person-environment interaction |
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Potential Weaknesses (3)
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1. less control over the variables. You get what is in the environment.
2. cannot infer causation -only have relationships that are associational. Problems of Direction and Problem of 3rd variable problem. 3. problems with reliability and validity IF use self-report. (See discussion pages 63-64) (verbal, self assessments are always questionable b/c we cannot judge ourselves well, however maybe just as useful as other data, same scrutiny) |
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Experimental Study- Intervention, observation, and control
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Def. -1. Standardized procedures
2. Control group (at least one Independent Variable will be treatment vs control) 3. Field research 4. How is field research different from naturalistic research |
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Potential Strengths (4)
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1. manipulate certain variables and control others. You know exactly what you are investigating.
2. data is recorded objectively 3. cause-effect relationships can be determined. 4. more powerful statistics are available. |
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Potential Limitations (4)
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1. artificial setting - does not always accurately reproduce the complexity of the natural envi. This limits generalizability.
2. some phenomena cannot be studied 3. Experimental bias, i.e. can foster demand characteristics and experimenter effects (these can be minimized with careful planning of the experiment.) 4. Your data is group means, so statements are dealing with averages of your groups, not individuals. |
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Summary Since each approach has strengths and limitations, it is important to use all three approaches in developing and testing our personality theories.
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Clinical studies
1.generate ideas about what to study 2. can show examples of when a theory is not supported. 3. They are also good for studying rare phenomenon that could not otherwise be studied |
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Correlational studies can
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1. show if a theory holds up “in the real world” when no variables are artificially controlled.
2.They are also good for issues that cannot be controlled or manipulated Experimental studies show which variables cause other variables to change. |
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Ethics
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Psychology has grown and developed over our short history with respect to ethics. Your book mentions Zimbardo’s and Milgram’s experiments. Later, you will learn of Watson’s experiments which would be considered unethical, now. In the field of Biology, there are the Tuskeegee experiments. Outside review boards now oversee and approve every psychological experiment.
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Reliability
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reliability refers to the replicability of an observation, finding, or test score. If an observation, finding, or test score is reliable, then the same observation, etc. will happen again and again. The phenomenon is stable, consistent, and dependable.
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Reliability coefficient
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Reliability is expressed as a reliability coefficient – the correlation coefficient that describes the strength and direction of the correlation between the scores of the first testing or measurement and the scores of the second testing or measurement.
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Validity
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Def. - validity refers to the extent to which our observation, finding, or test score actually reflect or mean what we think they do.
4 Types (actually only 3) |
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Types of Validity
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1. Face
2. Content 3. Criterion – predictive Concurrent discriminative 4. Construct |
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Reliability of types of data
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L and T data tend to be very reliable – everytime I look at your elementary school achievement test scores, they are the same; everytime I measure your reaction time, it is reasonably the same.
O and S data have more potential problems with reliability |
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Potential Problems with Self Report Data, whether you use it in Clinical, Correlational, or Experimental Approaches:
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Faking good
Intentionally, or due to Social desirability Faking Bad cry for help or malingering Acquiesence Nay-Sayers |
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I. Freud's contributions to / effect on psychology and society
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A. Importance of childhood
1. Children are different from adults 2. Childhood experiences are important in formulating adult personality |
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I. Freud's contributions to / effect on psychology and society
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B. Different levels of consciousness or awareness
C. Explained aspects of normal behavior D. Discussed and normalized sexual drive E. "Blaming the victim?” F. established that talking about the problems and establishing a relationship with the therapist as the cornerstone to psychotherapy. |
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II. Freud's personal history – see book
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Theorists’ own experiences, beliefs, and values often influences their definition of Personality, choice of research methodology, choice of data, and answers to the value-ladened questions, such as “What is the view of human nature” or “How important is Nature vs Nurture”
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III. Structure of personality
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2 versions: Topographical model and later
Structural model |
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Topographical
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1.conscious – reality principle;secondary process thinking
2. Unconscious – pleasure principle; primary process thinking 3. Preconscious –primary and secondary censorship |
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Structural model
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1. Id-– unconscious, pleas. Prin., primary process thinking – wish fulfillment
2.Ego-uncon., precon., and con. Uses reality principle and secondary process thinking. Superego-uncon., precon., and con. Uses reality principle and secondary process thinking. Ego Ideal and Conscience |
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Conservation of Energy
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Each personality structure requires energy and draws this energy from one another. The more energy the id has, the less for the other two, etc. Think of people you know who may be mostly id, mostly ego, or mostly superego. The flow of energy between these structures is a dynamic process = psychodynamic theory.
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IV. Process
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1. Instincts
A.Energy - life or libido (Eros) death (Thanatos). B. Conflict - the ego and its “Three Harsh Masters” 1. anxiety- 3 types – one from each “Harsh Master” |
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IV. Process
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2.defense mechanisms- 5 of them were Sigmund Freud’s
a. repression b. reaction formation c. Projection d. Regression- (usually acute) e. Fixation (usually chronic) – some personality traits arise from fixations at various developmental stages. Caused by too little or too much gratification or a trauma at that stage. |
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V. Growth and Development
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A. Growth and development of the Thinking process – from primary to secondary
B. Growth and development of the expression of the instincts - stages |
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Stages 1. oral
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birth to 2 years fixation leads to drinking, smoking, overeating, nailbiting, etc. Oral Personality traits leads to oral dependent or oral aggressive personality traits.
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Stages, cont. 2. anal
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2 to 3 years
fixation leads to Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and Anal Personality traits are anal retentive (see triad of traits on page 124) or anal expulsive personality traits |
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Stages, cont. 3. phallic
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3 to 5 years
Ends with successful identification with same sexed parent and the formation of the superego. fixation leads to “inappropriate” sexual identity/attraction or unresolved Oedipal conflict. Phallic Personality traits = a woman who is very flirtatious or very sexually promiscuous or a man who is overly “macho” or sexually promiscuous. |
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Stages, cont.
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4. latency 6 to 8 years
5. genital adolescence onward Review: Why did Freud say that our basic personality was formed by age 5? |
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Psychopathologies- 8
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1. oral stage pathologies- oral aggressive/ oral dependent Personality traits or fixations - drinking/drug abuse, smoking, overeating/ eating disorders,
2. Anal stage pathologies- Anal stage personality traits –retentive or expulsive and Fixations- Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) |
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Psychopathologies- 8
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3. Phallic stage pathologies – fixations described above, Phallic Personality traits, or multiple personality disorder, conversion disorder
4. Repressed memories 5. id impulses that the ego can’t control (excessive sexual urges or behaviors/ excessive aggressive urges or behaviors) |
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Psychopathologies- 8
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6. superego dictates the ego can’t maintain (excessive guilt)
7. the 3 types of anxiety 8. overused or ill-used defense mechanisms. Discuss Rifkin |
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Process of Change
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free association - "talking cure“
dream analysis interpreting transference issues a.provide a Corrective Emotional Experience interpreting Freudian slips/ accidents/ symbolic behavior Hypnosis |
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Personality testing - projective-
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1. Rorschach
2. TAT |
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Nature Nurture Continuum
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nature, person, internal
1. Sigmund Freud 2. Anna Freud 3. Erik Erikson 4. Jung 5 Object Relations 6. Neo-Freudians (Horney, Fromm, and Sullivan) 7. Ego psychologists 8 Adler |
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Psychodynamic Theorists
LESS ATTENTION TO |
id and instincts, purely intrapsychic causes and conflicts, earliest adulthood, psychosexual
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Psychodynamic Theorists
MORE ATTENTION TO |
ego and self, social, interpersonal causes,
and relationship issues later developments throughout the life span Social forces and positive strivings: the role of culture and society |
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Psychoanalytic Theorist
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Sigmund Freud
Anna Freud Erik Erikson Carl Jung |
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Psychodynamic theorists
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All psychoanalytic theorists
Alfred Adler Neo-Freudians Object Relations Ego Psychologists |
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Anna Freud
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3 contributions
1. Strengthened the ego and normalized defense mechanisms 2. Emphasis on other areas of child development led to important contributions in Child Law, Pediatrics, and Child Psychology 3. Added 6 defense mechanisms |
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Anna Freud 2. Other areas in childhood development
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Dependence vs independence
self-orientation (egocentricity) vs other- orientation Self-doubt vs self-mastery |
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Anna Freud 3. added 6 defense mechanisms
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Denial
Displacement Rationalization Undoing Sublimation isolation |
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Erik Erikson (see ch. 3 pages 105-108)
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Stages of development
Emphasized play as “the royal road to the unconscious” in children vs dreams |
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ERIKSON'S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Oral (0-2)and anal (2-3) |
Basic trust vs mistrust; anal: autonomy vs shame and doubt
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Phallic (3-5) and Latency (6-8)
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Initiative vs guilt; industry vs inferiority for latency
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Genital (adolescence, until 20)
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Identity vs role confusion
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ERIKSON'S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Oral (0-2)and anal (2-3) |
Basic trust vs mistrust; anal: autonomy vs shame and doubt
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Added three stages: Early adulthood, adulthood, and later yrs (for personality devel)
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Early adulthood (INTIMACY VS ISOLATION) ADULTHOOD (GENERATIVITY VS STAGNATION), LATER YEARS (INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR)
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Phallic (3-5) and Latency (6-8)
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Initiative vs guilt; industry vs inferiority for latency
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Ego Crises
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Along with sexual and aggressive instincts expressing themselves in different areas of the body, the ego develops in stages, too.
Each stage presents the ego with specific social conflicts or crises that must be resolved. Positive and negative qualities can be formed. The more positive qualities formed, the better chance the ego has of meeting the challenges of the next stage’s crisis. |
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Oral stage
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Birth to 2 years old
Breast feeding or bottle feeding Ego Crisis is Trust vs mistrust |
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Genital (adolescence, until 20)
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Identity vs role confusion
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Added three stages: Early adulthood, adulthood, and later yrs (for personality devel)
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Early adulthood (INTIMACY VS ISOLATION) ADULTHOOD (GENERATIVITY VS STAGNATION), LATER YEARS (INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR)
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Anal Stage
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2-3 years old
Potty training Ego crisis is autonomy vs shame and doubt |
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Ego Crises
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Along with sexual and aggressive instincts expressing themselves in different areas of the body, the ego develops in stages, too.
Each stage presents the ego with specific social conflicts or crises that must be resolved. Positive and negative qualities can be formed. The more positive qualities formed, the better chance the ego has of meeting the challenges of the next stage’s crisis. |
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Phallic Stage
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3-5 years old
Resolution of the Oedipal Conflict Ego crisis is initiative vs guilt |
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Latency Stage
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6 years old to 12 (prepubescence)
Elementary and Middle school Ego Crisis is Industry vs Inferiority |
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Oral stage
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Birth to 2 years old
Breast feeding or bottle feeding Ego Crisis is Trust vs mistrust |
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Genital Stage
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12-20 years old
Adolescence and pubescence Ego Crisis is Identity vs role confusion |
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Anal Stage
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2-3 years old
Potty training Ego crisis is autonomy vs shame and doubt |
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Early Adulthood
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20 – 30 years old
Finding a mate Ego Crisis is Intimacy vs Isolation |
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Phallic Stage
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3-5 years old
Resolution of the Oedipal Conflict Ego crisis is initiative vs guilt |
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Adulthood
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30-65 years old
Ego Crisis – Generativity vs Stagnation |
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Latency Stage
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6 years old to 12 (prepubescence)
Elementary and Middle school Ego Crisis is Industry vs Inferiority |
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Later Years
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65 years and older
Retirement Ego Crisis is Integrity vs Despair |
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Genital Stage
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12-20 years old
Adolescence and pubescence Ego Crisis is Identity vs role confusion |
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Summary
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Same psychosexual and internal conflicts as Sigmund
Adds psychosocial conflicts that the ego must resolve Failing to resolve the psychosocial conflict of one stage means the ego is stuck in that stage and cannot develop the later abilities |
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Early Adulthood
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20 – 30 years old
Finding a mate Ego Crisis is Intimacy vs Isolation |
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Carl Jung Ch. 4
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Collective vs Personal Unconscious
Archetypes- mother earth, witches, godly father, demon, anima, animus, self Introversion/extroversion |
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Adulthood
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30-65 years old
Ego Crisis – Generativity vs Stagnation |
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Later Years
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65 years and older
Retirement Ego Crisis is Integrity vs Despair |
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Summary
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Same psychosexual and internal conflicts as Sigmund
Adds psychosocial conflicts that the ego must resolve Failing to resolve the psychosocial conflict of one stage means the ego is stuck in that stage and cannot develop the later abilities |
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Carl Jung Ch. 4
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Collective vs Personal Unconscious
Archetypes- mother earth, witches, godly father, demon, anima, animus, self Introversion/extroversion |
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Self Archetype
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Persona
Introversion/Extroversion Anima/Animus M/F Shadow |
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What do psychodynamic theorists have in common?
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All believe in a dynamic energy system, fueled by death and life instincts, flowing between id, ego and superego
All believe in the first 5 psychosexual stages of development (some add more) and that childhood is important. All believe in the personal unconscious and that much of our personality is unconscious All believe conflict and anxiety is important and that defense mechanisms protect us from that anxiety |
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What do psychodynamic theorists have in common?
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All believe that much of therapy involves bringing the unconscious conscious (vary as to how much of therapy involves this)
All believe that much of therapy involves providing a Corrective Emotional Experience All believe that transference will occur, if it is necessary |
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How are psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theories different?
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Psychodynamic theorists focus more on relationships with siblings, peers, and people outside of the family
Psychodynamic theorists focus more on the role of culture on the development of Personality Psychodynamic theorists work more with the conscious ego than unconscious aspects of personality |
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How they are different, cont
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Psychodynamic therapists will have you sit up and will sit facing you; they will tell you more about themselves and dialogue more with you.
Psychodynamic theorists see people more positively, as capable of change; adaptive, creative, and striving for success |
