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301 Cards in this Set
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Norman Triplett |
1st social psyc study. Found that people performed better on familiar tasks when in the presence of others |
Social psyc |
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McDougall & Ross |
Both independently published the first textbooks of social psyc |
Social psyc |
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Verplank |
Study indicating that social approval influences behaviour (feedback influences conversation) |
Social psyc |
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Bindle's Role Theory |
People are aware of the social roles expected of them and act accordingly |
Social psyc |
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Consistency Theories |
People have a preference for consistency & will change or resist changing attitudes based on this preference. Heider's balance theory; Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory; Daryl Bem's self-perception theory |
Social psyc |
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Balance Theory + example |
Fritz Heider. When P (subject), O (other person), & X (thing, idea, or another person) fit together harmoniously, there is balance. Imbalance leads to stress & motivation to create balance. E.g., P & O like each other &: they both agree on X (there is balance); both disagree (imbalance) |
Social psyc |
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory |
Leon Festinger. Cognitive dissonance occurs when an attitude & behaviour are not aligned. The discomfort motivates changing of behvr or attitude to recreate harmony. Adding a consonant element may help (e.g., smoking low-tar rather than reg cigars) |
Social psyc |
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Free Choice Dissonance |
When one is able to make choices between several desirable alternatives to reduce dissonance |
Social psyc |
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Forced Compliance Dissonance |
Subject is forced to behave in a way that is inconsistent w/ attitudes (can come from anticipation of punishment/reward) |
Social psyc |
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Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) |
Participants underwent a boring task & were subsequently told to inform the next participant (confederate) that the task was fun (condition: $1 vs $20 compensation). Those that were paid $1 reported higher enjoyment of the experiment (minimal justification effect) |
Social psyc |
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Minimal Justification Theory (Insufficient Justification Theory) |
When behaviour could be justified by external inducement (reward/punishment), then there is no need to change attitudes but when justification is minimal, there is a tendency to change one's attitudes to reduce the dissonance |
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Self-Perception Theory |
Daryl Bem. When attitudes are weak/ambiguous, then people tend to infer what their attitudes are based on their behaviours. |
Social psyc |
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Over-justification Effect |
Rewarding a behaviour that someone already likes doing may lead to them not liking it. Similar to self-perception theory |
Social psyc |
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Carl Hovland + Model |
Studied persuasion & attitudes change as a process of communicating a message (with intent to persuade). Communicator, communication, & situation |
Social psyc |
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Communicator (Hovland's model) |
Perceptions of expertise & trustworthiness influence perceptions of credibility |
Social psyc |
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Sleeper effect |
Hovland's persuasion research. When the persuasive impact of a highly credible source decreases while the low credability source increases overtime. Believed this effect was due to a discounting cue (warning or disclaimer) in the low credibility source. Overtime people forget the discounting cue. In order for this effect to occur, the low cred message needs to be persuasive, the discounting must initially block attitude change, & the association between the cue & message dissociates. (Effect not replicated in later studies....) |
Social psyc |
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Two-sided message |
Presents arguments for and against a position to make the argument appear more balanced and thus more persuasive (Hovland) |
Social psyc |
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Elaboration Likelihood Model |
Pretty & Cacioppo. Posited that there is a central route & peripheral route of persuasion. Central: if the message is important to us; stronger evidence is more likely to change minds. Peripheral: if the issue isn't important to us or if the message is not clearly understood/heard; persuasion more dependent on how, by whom, and in what surrounding the argument is presented rather than strength of argument |
Social psyc |
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William McGuire |
Studied resistance to persuasion. Used cultural truisms (beliefs rarely questioned like the important of brushing teeth) & used the analogy of inoculation (presents argument against the truism then a rebuttal) |
Social psyc |
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Belief Perseverance |
The phenomenon when inducing an individual to a belief and asking them to provide an explanation for it themselves makes the individual more likely to continue to believe the statement despite being told that it is false. William McGuire |
Social psyc |
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Social Comparison Theory + 3 principles |
Leon Festinger. We are drawn to affiliate w/ other b/c we tend to evaluate ourselves in comparison to others. 3 principles: A. People tend to evaluate themselves through objective, non-social means but when that is not possible, we evaluate our opinions and abilities by comparing them to others, B. The lower the similarities of opinions/abilities being assessed, then lower likelihood of making these comparisons, C. When abilities are not aligned w/ opinions, we tend to change it so it becomes more aligned with group (self-evaluation linked to affiliation) |
Social psyc |
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Stanley Schachter |
Posited that the greater the anxiety, the greater the need to affiliate/ greater social comparison, greater need to affiliate |
Social psyc |
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Reciprocity Hypothesis |
We tend to like people who like us and hate people who hate us. Highlights the fact that we use our own judgements but also take into consideration the other person's evaluation of us |
Social psyc |
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Gain-loss principle |
Aronson & Linder. Evaluations that change (e.g. increase in liking or decrease) are more likely to have a greater impact than evaluations that remain constant |
Social psyc |
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Social Exchange Theory |
People tend to maximize rewards & minimize costs when interacting w/ others/ weigh the costs/benefits of the interaction |
Social psych |
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Equity Theory |
People (except psychopaths) tend to prefer one's ratio of costs to rewards to be equal to the other person's ratio |
Social psyc |
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Spatial proximity |
The tendency to develop a stronger liking for people living closer to them than those far away |
Social psyc |
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Mere exposure hypothesis |
Zajonc. Repeated exposures to a stimuli increases the likelihood of am enhanced liking for it due to increased familiarity |
Social psyc |
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Bystander intervention research |
Darley & Latané. Kitty Genovese, diffusion of responsibility & social influence |
Social psyc |
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Pluralistic Ignorance |
Viewing an event as a non-emergency due to social influence (e.g., smoke and confederate's reaction) |
Social psyc |
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Empathy-Altruism Model |
Batson. Posits that when we see someone in need of help we may either feel empathy and/or distress. Study of viewing a shock & asking to take place. Those with high empathy were more likely to agree regardless of escape difficulty while those with high distress were more likely to leave in the easy escape condition |
Social psyc |
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Social Learning Theory of Aggression |
Bandera. Aggression is selectively reinforced through modeling or direct reinforcement. Bobo doll experiment |
Social psyc |
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Muzafer & Sherif's conformity study |
Autokinetic effect: staring at a still light within a dark room will eventually lead to a perception of it moving. Subject's report of the distance of light movement conformed to group norms |
Social psyc |
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Asch's conformity study |
Comparison of lines and length |
Social psyc |
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Milgram's study |
Shock obedience srudy |
Social psyc |
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Foot-in-the-door |
Complying to a small request increases the chances of co plying to a subsequent larger request |
Social psyc |
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Door-in-the-face |
Refusing a large request increases the likelihood of complying with a subsequent smaller request |
Social psyc |
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Clark & Clark's self-perception study |
Found that African-descendant children preferred white dolls when given a choice between white & black |
Social psyc |
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Albert Bandura's Self-efficacy |
Self-efficacy is based on past performance, vicarious experiences, social persuasion (task success is suggested by others), and emotional/physiological state |
Social psyc |
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Primacy Effect (impressions) |
When first impressions are more influential than subsequent impressions |
Social psyc |
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Recency effect (impression) |
When recent info we have about an individual is most influential in forming impressions |
Social psyc |
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Fundamental Attribution Error |
Heider, the tendency to infer other people's behaviours to dispositional attributions while our own behaviour to situational factors |
Social psyc |
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Halo Effect |
The tendency to let general impressions influence other more specific evaluations of the person (X is a good person --> X is good at skating) |
Social psyc |
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Belief in a Just World |
Lerner. The belief that good things happen to good people & bad things happen to bad people. Associated w/ victim blaming |
Social psyc |
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Newcomb's social norms study |
Women from conservative backgrounds who attended a all womens progress college tended to change to more progressive views that remained stable (unless marrying into a Republican/conservative family) |
Social psyc |
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Edward Hall's findings in Proxemics |
Proxemics: study of how individual's space themselves in relation to others. Found that those who are intimate tend to stand 1 foot apart & those that aren't stand several feet apart |
Social psyc |
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Zajonc's Theory |
Presence of others increases arousal and enhances emission of dominant behaviours. Rookie-mistakes, pro-correct moves |
Social psyc |
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Social loafing |
Tendency to expend fewer effort when in a group compared to individually |
Social psyc |
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Prison Simulation |
Zimbardo. Anonymity diminishes restraints on antisocial behaviours. Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness & personal identity |
Social psyc |
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Irving Janis |
Researched ways that groups can make horrible decisions. Group think, risky shift, value hypothesis |
Social psyc |
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Groupthink |
The phenomenon of groups tending to strive for consensus by not considering discordant info. Irving Janis |
Social psyc |
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Risky shift, value hypothesis |
Irving Janis. Groups tend to make riskier choices than the average of individual decision. Risky shift is particularly more likely in cultures where risk is valued |
Social psyc |
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James Stoner's couple decision study (1968) |
Couples were given a dilemma of choose either to let a pregnancy that would endanger the mother's life to continue or to terminate it. Contrary to risky shift assumption, couples shifted towards caution --> group polarization |
Social |
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Group polarization |
The tendency for group discussion to enhance the group's original tendency toward risk or caution |
Social |
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Kurt Lewin's leadership study |
Afterschool camp; boys were either supervised by a autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire leadership style. Autocratic, most work output, agressive/hostile, & dependent on leader. Democratic, most satisfying, cohesive, motivation, & interest. Laissez-faire, least efficient, & organized; also less satisfying than democratic |
Social |
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Robber's cave experiment |
Muzafer Sherif. Competition --> hostility. Cooperation --> reduced hostility through shared superordinate goal |
Social |
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Arson & Linder |
Gain-loss principle (attitude change & impact) |
Social |
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Asch |
Conformity study w/ length of lines |
Social |
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Daryl Bem |
Self-perception theory (alternative to cognitive dissonance. Weak attitude -> look to behaviour to determine attitude |
Social |
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Clark & Clark |
Doll preference study |
Social |
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Bandura |
Social learning theory of aggression (bobo doll). Self-efficacy & vicarious learning |
Social |
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Cattell |
Used factor analysis to study personality. 16 traits |
Social |
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Dollard & Miller |
Used psychoanalytic approaches within a behaviourist framework. Approach-avoidance conflict |
Social |
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Erikson |
Ego psychologist. Psychosocial stages of development |
Social |
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Eysenck |
Extroversion-introversion from Jung. Added stability-neuroticism and psychoticism |
Social |
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Darley & Latané |
Bystander effect, deindividuation, diffusion of responsibility, & social influence |
Social |
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Eagly |
Argued that gender differences in conformity is due to social roles rather than gender itself |
Social |
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Festinger |
Cognitive dissonance, social comparison theory (we affiliate bc we evaluate ourselves by comparing ourselves to other; 3 principles) |
Social |
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Hall |
Proxemics. Studies interpersonal distance during interpersonal situations |
Social |
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Hovland |
Attitude change. Sleep effect, communicator, communication, & situation |
Social |
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Janis |
Groupthink, risky shifts (value hypothesis) |
Social |
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Lerner |
Belief in a just world |
Social |
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Lewin |
Leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire |
Social |
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McGuire |
Social inoculation (persuasion) of cultural truisms |
Social |
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Milgrim |
Obedience shock experiment, stimulus-overload theory (bystander effect?) |
Social |
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Newcomb |
Political norms (school, progressive, republican |
Social |
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Petty & Cacioppo |
Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (central vs peripheral route) |
Social |
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Sherif |
Conformity. Autokinetic effect, Robber's cave experiment |
Social |
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Zajonc |
Mere exposure effect (familiarity), social facilitation effect |
Social |
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Zimbardo |
Prison simulation. Deindividuation |
Social |
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John Locke |
Tabula Rasa: a blank slate at birth (counter to the belief held at the time that children were miniature adults) |
Developmental |
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau |
Argued that society was detrimental to optimal development |
Developmental |
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Functionalist school of thought |
Focused on investigating the mind with the focus on its function and in helping the individual adapt to the environment |
Developmental |
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Stanley Hall |
Father of developmental psychology & founded the APA. Found that adolescent males tend to be more sensation seekers & aggressive than females (who were more relationally aggressive rather than physically aggressive) |
Developmental |
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John B. Watson |
Bahaviourist; little Albert experiment. Viewed that emotions & thoughts as acquired through learning |
Developmental |
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Arnold Gesell |
Nativist. Viewed development as a biological process (blueprint for development at birth regardless of training or practice) |
Developmental |
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Cognitive structualist |
Posited that children are active agents in their own development (interacting & learning from their experiences w/ the environment) |
Developmental |
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Cross-sectional |
Compare different group at one specific point in time |
Developmental |
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Longitudinal design |
Follow a specific group & assess variables of interest over an extended time |
Developmental-methods |
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Longitudinal + cross-sectional |
Sequential cohort study (several different age groups follow over an extended time) |
Developmental-methods |
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Clinical method |
Case study |
Developmental-methods |
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Gregor Mendel |
Father of the study of genetics (pea plants). Possible for identical genotypes to have different phenotypes due to differences in environment |
Developmental |
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Human DNA |
46 chromosome, 22 homologous pairs (autosomes-nonsex), 1 pair of sex chromosomes |
Developmental |
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Diploids |
Pairs of chromosomes (in nucleus of each cell except for gametes) |
Developmental |
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Haploids |
Single set of chromosomes (23) in gametes (sperm/egg cells) |
Developmental |
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R.C. Tyron's 1942 study |
Selective breeding of maze-running rats (maze-bright, intermediate, & maze-dull). Difference between bright & dull intensified from generation to generation (effect did not generalize to other mazes) |
Developmental |
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Development methods for studying individual differences (3) |
Family (can't tease environment from genetics), twin (monozygotic twins tend to imitate each other & identical in terms of cognition, social, & emotional characteristics than DZ; DZ may not share environments to the same degree), & adoption studies |
Developmental |
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Risk of children acquiring Schizophrenia |
Parents w/ disorder --> 13x higher than gen pop. Sibling-->9x higher |
Developmental |
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IQ, between adoptees & parents |
More similar to biological than foster |
Developmental |
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Down's Syndrome |
Extra 21st chromosome; older parents during conception leads to higher risk |
Developmental |
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Phenylkentonuria (PKU) |
Degenerative disease of the nervous system due to a lack of the enzyme needed to break down phenylalanine (first genetic disease tested in large populations) |
Developmental |
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Klinefelter's syndrome |
Males. Extra x chromosome (xxy). These individuals are sterile & often have intellectual disabilities |
Developmental |
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Turner's syndrome |
Females. Only one chromosome x. Does not develop secondary sex characteristics & associated w/ physical abnormalities |
Development |
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Stages of prenatal development |
1. Egg in fallopian tube is fertilized by sperm cell creating a zygote. The zygote then goes down the uterus & attaches to the uterine wall. 2. Germinal period (lasts 2 wks from conception) 3. Embryonic period (lasts approx 8 wks). Embryo grows by 2 mil% & starts to develop a human appearance. Males start producing androgens in testes. Nerve cells in spine develop & movement occurs 4. Fetal period (begins on the 3rd month): measurable electrical activity in brain |
Developmental |
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Rubella, German measles, or thalidomide's effect on prenatal development |
Rubella or German measles: before the end of the 2nd month, risk of cataracts, deafness, & intellectual disability Thalidomide (tranquilizer): birth defects (heart, eyes, digestive tract, ears, & kidneys) |
Developmental |
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Most common cause of abnormal development |
Maternal malnutrition |
Developmental |
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Effects of smoking, daily alcohol, protein deficiency, maternal narcotics addiction, & prenatal exposure to x-ray's effect on development |
Smoking: premature birth, delayed growth, increased fetal heart rate Daily alcohol: delayed growth & psychological development Protein deficiency: intellectual disability & reduce immunity to disease Maternal narcotics addiction: newborns go through traumatic withdrawal syndrome X-ray exposure: intellectual disability, defects in skull, spinal cord, eyes, & limb deformities
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Development |
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Newborn behavioural characteristics |
Rooting, moro, babinski, grasping |
Development |
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Rooting |
Automatically turning of head towards stimulus applied to the cheek |
Developmental |
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Moro |
Reflex of extending arms & fingers out & then hugging themselves when experiencing sudden movement of the head -typically disappears 4-5 months of age (if still present, then suggests developmental difficulties) |
Development |
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Babinski |
Toes automatically spreading apart when the soles of the feet are stimulated |
Development |
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Grasping |
Automatically closing their fingers around objects placed in their hand |
Development |
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Jean Piaget's stages of development |
1. Sensorimotor stage 2. Pre-operational stage 3. Concrete operational stage 4. Formal operational stage |
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According to Jean Piaget, adaptation takes the form of which two complimentary processes? |
Assimilation: interpreting new info in relation to existing schemata Accomodation: when new info does not fit with existing schemata, modifying the existing schemata to fit the new info |
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Sensorimotor stage |
From birth to approx age 2. -primary circular reactions -secondary circular reactions -the development of object permanence |
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Primary circular reaction |
Manipulation of movement (advent of goal-directed behaviour). E.g., sucking lips when hungry |
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Secondary circular reaction |
Movement of objects in the environment |
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Preoperational stage |
Age 2 to approx age 7. -beginning of representational thought -Centration, egocentrism, symbolic representation, *unable to grasp the concept of conservation (properties of matter do not change when the appearance of the matter changes; liquid) -play (play beside other children but not with during beginning of the stage; further in stage as egocentrism declines, engagement of symbolic play) -Animism: the belief that inanimate objects have human emotions & intentions (4 stages) -irreversibility: unable to reverse the sequence of events to their starting point -arificialism: belief that certain aspects of the environment are made by people (e.g., clouds) |
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4 stages of Animism according to Piaget |
1. Up to 4-5 years, almost everything is alive & has purpose 2. 5-7 years, only objects that move have purpose 3. 7-9 years, only objects that move spontaneously are alive 4. Understanding that only animal & plants are alive |
Development |
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Centration |
Tendency to focus on only one aspects of a phenomenon (can't focus on number and length together) 5 & 7 blocks |
Development |
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Egocentrism |
Inability to take the perspective of others. Child often refers only to themselves & assumes others see, think, & hear they way they do. Early speech more egocentric, speech is just to externalize inner thoughts rather than communicate |
Development |
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Concrete operational |
Age 7-11. Can conserve & take the perspective of others |
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Formal operational |
11-adulthood. Ability to form hypotheses & test them/make deductions & hold/form abstract thought |
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Lev Vygotsky |
Studied cultural influences on development. Believed that internalization of aspects of culture (rules, language, symbols) leads to cognitive development -zone of proximal development |
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Zone of proximal development |
Coined by Lev Vygotsky. Based on the notion that guidance from adults allows kids to demonstrate their ability. The zone of proximity is the difference between T2 (after adult guidance) and T1 (baseline) |
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Phonology |
The sound stem of words. 40 diff phonemes in English. Categorical perception: the ability to differentiate a set of sounds that have meaning & a set that doesn't |
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Syntax |
Ordering of words to form sentences |
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Babbling |
Lenneberg, Rebelsky, & Nichols (1995) found that children spontaneously start to babble at the age of 1 (babbling peaks around 9-12 months). Deaf infants soon stop babbling after it starts) |
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Holophrasis, age range starting to combine words, use sentences |
Using a single word to complete a thought Combine words:18-20 months Sentences: 2.5-3 yrs |
Developmental |
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Errors of growth (overregulation) |
Generalizing internalized rules but producing faulty words (hisself) |
Development |
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Language acquisition device, critical period for language acquisition |
LAD: innate capacity for language acquisition -->Chomsky Sensitive period (Genie), 2 to puberty |
Development |
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Freud's stages of development |
5 stages: Oral, anal, phallic, latency, & genital |
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Oral stage (Freud) |
Birth-1yr: gratification granted by grabbing things & placing in mouth & sucking/biting. Fixated adults: excessive dependency |
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Anal stage (Freud) |
1-3 yrs. Gratification gained by elimimation/retention of waste material Fixated adult: excessive orderliness or slpppiness |
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Phallic stage (Freud) |
3-5 yrs. Oedipal conflict: males envy the intimate relationship of their father with mother but fears castration, then suppresses urges & identifies with father (sexual identity & morality develop) Electra conflict: penis envy among females |
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Latency stage (Freud) |
Resolution of the oedipal conflict to puberty |
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Genital stage (Freud) |
Puberty through adulthood. If all stages were proceeded correctly, individual enters into healthy heterosexual relationship. If not, then fetishes may occur |
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Erik Erickson's stages of psychosocial development |
1. Trust vs Mistrust (1st yr) 2. Autonomy vs Shame & doubt (1-3yr) 3. Initiative vs Guilt (3-6yrs) 4. Industry vs Inferiority (6-12yrs) 5. Identity vs Role Confusion 6. Intimacy vs Isolation (young adulthood) 7. Generativity vs Stagnation (middle age) 8. Integrity vs Despair (old age) |
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Trust vs. Mistrust stage |
1st yr. Trustful of the environment vs suspicion of the world |
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Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt |
1-3yrs. Feeling of will & ability to exercise choices & self-restraint vs. Sense of doubt & lack of control (external locus of control) |
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Initiative vs. Guilt |
3-6yrs. Ability to initiate activities & enjoy accomplishments vs. Overcome by fear of punishment (restrict themselves or overcompensation/showing off) |
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Industry vs. Inferiority |
6-12yrs. Feelings of competency, ability to exercise one's abilities & intelligence & influence the world the way they would like vs. Sense of inadequacy, low self-esteem, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner |
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Identity vs. Role confusion |
Fidelity, ability to see oneself as a unique & integrated person w/ sustained loyalty vs. Confusion of identity w/ amorphous personality that shifts day to day |
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Intimacy vs. Isolation |
Young adulthood. Love, ability to commit to others & own goals, ability to have intimate relationships w/ others vs. Withdrawn or only capable of superficial relationships w/ others |
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Generativity vs.Stagnation |
Middle age. Productive, caring, & contributing to society vs. Self-indulgent, bored, self-centered |
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Integrity vs. Despair |
Old age. Wisdom, assurance of the meaning of life, acceptance of life as worthwhile, & ready to face death vs. Bitterness of one's life, feelings of life being worthless, fear of death |
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Thomas & Chess' longitudinal study on temperament |
3 infant styles: 1. Easy- positive mood, regular bodily function, & easily adapt to new environment 2. Slow to warm up- withdrew at first but soon easily adapted to new situations 3. Difficult- negative emotionality, irregular bodily functions, withdrew in new situations |
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3 common research methods for studying temperament |
1. Parental report 2. Observation in naturalistic settings 3. Observation in laboratory settings |
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Jerome Kagan |
Found that inhibition & uninhibition during infancy predicted future temperament profiles |
Development |
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Peter Wolff's 3 distinct patterns of crying |
1. Basic (commonly associated w/ hunger) 2. Angry (associated w/ frustration) 3. Pain |
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Social smiling |
At first, undifferentiated smiling, then 5 months only familiar faces tend to elicit smiles |
Development |
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Fear |
At first, any sudden change in level of stimulation; then fear of absence of specific individual (mother) & the presence of an object or person that has harmed the child |
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Harry Harlow |
Rhesus monkey study w/ surrogate mother w/ or w/o blanket Comfort more essential for bond formation than providing for physical needs Wire-raised monkeys -> less socially adept & took more time to socially integrate Monkey's raised in isolation -> sexually inept, overly aggressive, & often bullied by other monkeys |
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John Bowlby |
Studied children raised in foster homes or orphanages (physical needs met but lacked intimate bodily contact) |
Development |
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Bowlby's sequence theory (up to 3rd yr) |
Pre-attachment (several weeks): infant reacts identically to every adult & smiling face Second attachment phase (by 3 months of age): ability to discriminate between familiar & unfamiliar faces 6 months: infant seeking out & responding specifically to mother 9-12 months: bond intensifies & develops stranger anxiety 2nd yr: separation anxiety 3rd yr: can separate from mother w/o prolonged distress |
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Mary Ainsworth |
Generalized Bowlby's sequence theory w/ Uganda infants. Strange situation procedure: 1. M&C enter room w/ toys & kids explore 2. Stranger enters room, remains silent then talks to the mother before playing w/ child 3. M leaves, S plays w/ C 4. M returns, S leaves 5. C is left alone 6. S enters & interacts w/ C 7. M enters & S leaves |
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Mary Ainsworth's 3 attachment categories |
Type A: insecure/avoidant attachment; child is not distressed when mother leaves & avoids contact when she returns Type B: secure attachment; mildly distress when separated but greets mother positively Type C: insecure/resistant attachment: distressed when mother leaves & tends to resist contact w/ M when she returns |
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Konrad Lorenz |
Imprinting: bird imprinting following a jackdaw strut |
Development |
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Lawrence Kohlberg |
3 phases of moral development & 3 phases of gender development |
Development |
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Kohlberg's 3 phases of moral development |
1. Preconventional morality: right/wrong determined by hedonistic consequences of a given action (reward/punishment) A. Stage 1: punishment & obedience B. Stage 2 (instrumental relativist): Orientation to reciprocity 2. Conventional morality: based on social rule A. Stage 3: good girl/nice boy; Seeking approval from others B. Stage 4: morality defined by rules of authority (law & order) 3. Post-conventional morality: A. Stage 5 (social contract): moral rules are viewed as conventions designed to ensure greater good B. Stage 6: acting according to a Universal set or principles |
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The Heinz Dilemma |
Actual decision isn't as important as the reasoning for that decision |
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Carol Gilligan |
Critiqued Kohlberg's 3 phases of moral development. Noted that he only studied males & findings can't be generalized to female moral development. Argued that female morality focuses on caring & compassion |
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Kohlberg's 3 stages of gender development |
1. Gender labeling (2-3yrs): achieves gender identity (realizes own membership & labels others) 2. Gender stability (3-4yrs): ability to predict that their gender will remain in future, based on superficial understanding dependent on physical aspects 3. Gender consistency (4-7yrs): understanding the permanency of gender regardless of clothes & behvr |
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Marvin & Halverson's gender schematic processing theory |
Once able to label their own gender, they focus more on behaviours associated with that gender & less on other genders |
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Diana Baumrind |
3 distinct parenting styles: 1. Authoritarian: punitive control methods & lack of emotional warmth -difficulties in school & peer relations 2. Authoritative: high demand for child compliance but without/low punitive control, utilizes positive reinforcement & high emotional warmth -more socially & academically adept 3. Permissive: low control/demand -difficulties in school & peer relations
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Development |
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Ainsworth |
Strange situation procedure to study attachment |
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Baumrind |
Parenting style & discipline |
Development |
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Bowlby |
Attachment w/ children in institutions |
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Erik Erikson |
8 stages of psychosocial conflicts in development |
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Freud |
5 stages of psychosexual development; Oedipal conflict |
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Gesell |
Nativist that viewed development was due to maturation (biological processes) |
Development |
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Gilligan |
Suggested males & females have diff orientations towards morality |
Development |
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Hall |
Founder of developmental psyc |
Development |
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Harlow |
Rhesus monkeys, contact & bond formation |
Development |
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Kagan |
Longitudinal study of temperament (inhibition/uninhibition) |
Development |
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Locke |
Tabulas Rasa |
Development |
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Piaget |
4 stages of cognitive development |
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Tryon |
Genetic basis of maze-running ability in rats |
Development |
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Vygotsky |
Cog development; proximal development |
Development |
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Rousseau |
Viewed that development could occur w/o the help of society |
Development |
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William Sheldon's theory of personality |
Related body type to personality. Ectomorphy: thin, tightly muscled Mesomorphy: hard, muscular, rectangular Endomorphy: soft, spherical |
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Edward Titchener |
Used method of introspection to study mind (structuralism) |
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Philippe Pinel |
1792, was director of an asylum in Paris that believed Cts should be treated w/ kindness & consideration |
Abnormal |
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Dorothea Dix |
Zealous advocate for the humane tx of the mentally ill |
abnormal |
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Emil Kreapelin |
Created a classification system for mental disorders (precursor to DSM) |
Abnormal |
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A disorder that reflected organic causes for mental disorder |
Syphilis in brain-> general paresis. Delusions->paralysis->death |
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Cerletti & Bini |
Believed using electrical shock to evoke an artificial seizure would treat schizophrenia (was wrong) |
Abnormal |
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Rationale for lobotomies |
Leads to the absence of feelings, which made Px appear more tranquil & easier to handle |
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Id (Freud), 3 factors |
Reservoir of all psychic energy. Pleasure principle: goal is to discharge any energy buildup Primary process: id's focus on obtaining satisfaction immediately Wish fulfillment: mental image of an object to address energy (hunger - food) |
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Ego, reality principle, secondary process |
Reality principle: takes into consideration of reality when guiding or inhibiting the id/pleasure principle Secondary process: postponing the pleasure principle until the object needed to satisfy the need is found/produced |
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Superego |
Conscience: has rules/norms of what constitute bad behavior Ego-ideal: rules/norms of what constitutes good behaviour -system substitute for parental punishment/reward |
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Eros |
Life instinct: libido, hunger,thirst |
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Thanatos |
Death instinct. Unconscious wish for ultimate/absolute state of quiescence |
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What do all 8 defense mechanisms of the ego have in common? What are the 8? |
Deny, falsify, or distort reality; operate unconsciously
Repression, suppression, projection, reaction formation, rationalization, regression, sublimation, & displacement |
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Sublimation |
Changing a forbidden urge into socially acceptable behaviour |
Defense mechanisn |
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Discharge |
Pent-up feelings are discharged on objects & people less dangerous than those objects/people causing the feeling |
Defense mechanism |
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Carl Jung's view of libido |
Broader form of energy than just sexuality |
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Carl Jung's components of the mind |
Ego: conscious mind Personal unconscious & collective unconscious Archetypes: persona, anima, animus, shadow, & self |
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Jung's 2 major orientations |
Extraversion: orientation to the external, objective world Introversion: orientation to the internal, subjective world |
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Alfred Adler |
Focused on society's & family's influence on the unconscious. Viewed personality as being driven by the pursuit of superiority & argued when this striving socially oriented (benefits all) it enhances personality but when if is self-oriented, personality disturbances develop |
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Inferiority complex |
Individual's sense of incompetence & imperfection |
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Creative Self (Adler) |
The force that shapes one's own uniqueness & personality |
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Style of life (Adler) |
Manifested by one's creative self & unique way of striving for superiority. Heavily influenced by family |
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Fiction Finalism (Adler) |
Individuals are more motivated by their expectations of the future than by their past |
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Karen Horney |
Argued that neurotic personalities are governed by one of 10 needs (each pertaining to making life & interactions bearable) |
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Most common needs (Horney) |
Affection, approval, to exploit others, self-sufficiency, & independence |
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The 4 characteristics of the needs of neurotic individuals |
1. Disproportionate in intensity 2. Indiscriminate in application 3. Partially disregards reality 4. Tendency to provoke anxiety |
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3 strategies used to address needs (Horney) |
1. Move towards people to gain the good will of ppl who provide security 2. Fight people to obtain the upperhand 3. Moving away/avoid ppl *healthy people use all 3 depending on the situation while neurotic individuals use one strategy exclusively & rigidly |
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Anna Freud |
Founder of Ego psychology. Stressed the importance of the direct observation of the ego in relation to the world, unconscious, & superego |
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Object relations theory |
Looks at a child's development through the internalization of objects (significant others) & it's role in interpersonal interactions |
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Techniques used in psychoanalysis |
Free association (Freud previously used hypnosis), dream interpretation, analysis of resistance, transference & counter-transference |
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Dollard & Miller |
Incorporated psychoanalytic concepts to behaviourism; approach-avoidance conflics |
Personality |
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Albert Bandura |
Believed that learning principles are enough to account for personality. Social learning theory |
Personality |
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Social learning theory |
Albert Bandura. Learning occurs not only through reinforced of own behaviours but also through vicarious reinforcement |
Personality |
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Martin Seligman's learned helplessness theory of depression |
Put dogs in between walls that would shock upon being touched, reduced the height the shock but dogs would not jump over it (argued humans do the same thing w/ difficult situations that they can't escape). Leading to depression/learned helplessness/ external locus of control |
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Aaron Beck |
CBT for depression |
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Albert Ellis |
Rational-emotive therapy (RET) |
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Phenomenologists |
Focused on internal processes rather than overt behaviours |
Abnormal |
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Psychological Field Theory |
Kurt Lewin. Behaviour = the function of the person within their environment. Personality can be divided up into ever-changing regions (systems). Under optimal environments, the system is well articulated & functions in a integrated fashion but when under stress/tension, articulation is generally diffuse |
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Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of needs |
1. Physiological (food, shelter) 2. Safety 3. Belongingness & love 4. Esteem (feelings of accomplishment, cognitive, aesthetic) 5. Self-actualization |
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Self-actualizers (Maslow) |
Tend to be non-hostile, have a sense of humour, originality, creativity, spontaneity, & need for privacy. Also tends to have peak experiences (profound & deeply moving experiences that have an important & lasting effect on the indv) |
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George Kelly |
Believed that all humans test hypotheses regarding the bvhrs of significant others in their life. They construct schemas of anticipation of what others will do based on prior experiences, knowledge, & relationship w/ other people. Anxious ppl have difficulties constructing/understanding the variables in their environment |
Abnormal |
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Humanistic-existential therapies' attribution of psychopathology |
Linked to loneliness, alienation, depersonalization, & lack of meaningful existence |
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Carl Rogers |
Client-centered therapy, non-directive therapy. Believed that Cts have the ability to make their own choices, reflect on their own problems, & shape their own destinies. Unconditional positive regard. Highlighted the notion of congruence between the ideal self & actual self, with a willingness to be able to be themselves |
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Victor Frankl |
Survivor of Nazi concentration camps. Viewed psychopathology as a result of a life of meaninglessness |
Abnormal |
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Type A |
Competitive & compulsive; prone to heart disease & more prevalent in middle- & upper-class men |
Personality |
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Type B |
Laid-back, relaxed |
Personality |
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Raymond Cattell |
Used factor analysis to identify 16 basic traits |
Personality |
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Hans Eysenck |
Types: broad dimensions of personality Trait: specific aspects of personality |
Personality |
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Gordon Allport |
Father of personality psychology. Argued that human beings should be studied both as a whole and as unique individuals. Posited cardinal traits, central traits, secondary traits, functional autonomy, idiographic (morphogenic) approaches, nomothetic (dimensional) approaches |
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Cardinal Traits |
Gordon Allport. Traits that an individual organizes their life around (Ghandi & ascetic). Not everyone develops cardinal traits |
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Central traits |
Major characteristics that are easy to infer (honesty, fatalism) |
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Secondary traits |
Personal characteristics that are more limited in occurence than central traits |
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Functional autonomy |
A means to a goal can become the goal itself. Hunting for food, then hunting for the sake of hunting |
Personality |
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Idiographic approaches/morphogenic |
Allport. Studying personality by focusing on individual cases |
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Nomothetic (dimensional) approaches |
Allport. Finding commonalities between individuals |
Personality |
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David McClelland |
Studied the need for achievement (N-Ach) as a personality trait. These individuals avoid high risk situations (fear of failure) & low risk situations (no sense of accomplishment/achievement); sets realistic goals & avoids pursuit if failure seems likely |
Personality |
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Herman Witkin |
Linked personality to their view of the world. Field Dependence. |
Personality |
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Field independence |
Witkins. The capacity to make specific responses to perceived specific stimuli. Viewing individual trees within a field of trees |
Personality |
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Field dependence |
Witkims. Capacity to make more diffuse responses to a perceived mass of undifferentiated stimuli. Sees the forest rather than individual trees. Also tends to be more easily influenced by the opinions of other due to the tendency to not distinguish separate ideas |
Personality |
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Julian Rotter |
External locus of control & internal locus of control |
Personality |
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Machiavellianism |
Manipulative, deceitful. Tends to view others as not know what's best for themselves |
Personality |
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Sandra Bem |
Argued that ppl can score high on both masculinity & femininity at the same time (two separate gender dimensioms), androgyny: simultaneously very M & F |
Personality |
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Walter Mischel |
Criticized personality psyc. Believed that behaviour is more determined by characteristics of the situation rather than personality traits of the person |
Personality |
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DSM |
Not based on etiology, tx, or theory (neurosis is not in the DSM). Just classification. 18 classifications |
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ADHD (gender & age) |
more common among males & usually apparent by the age of 3 |
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Eugene Bleuler |
Coined the term Schizophrenia (was prior known as dementia praecox was |
Abnormal |
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Positive symptoms of schizophrenia |
Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech/thought, catatonic behavour |
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Negative symptoms |
Flat affect, blunted emotional expression |
Abnormal |
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Neologism |
Invention of new words - part of disorganized speech |
Abnormal |
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Prodromal phase of schizophrenia |
Social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behaviours, inappropriate affect, unusual experiences |
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Process schizophrenia |
Develops slowly & insidiously. Poorer prognosis |
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Reactive schizophrenia |
Intense sudden onset, better prognosis |
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Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia |
The delusions, agitation, & hallucinations are related to excessive dopamine in certain areas of the brain. Alternative hypothesis is that there are normal levels of dopamine but the individual is just oversensitive to it |
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Double-blind hypothesis of schizophrenia |
Individuals w/ schizophrenia were given conflicting/incompatible info as children from their primary caregiver (demands affection but yells when child approaches), child starts to view their perceptions of reality as being unsupported |
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MDD |
Episode lasting at least 2 weeks. Other possible symptoms: appetite disturbances, sleep disturbances, substantial weight change, sleep disturbances, feelings of guilt/worthlessness, decreased energy. Approx 15% of those with MDD die by suicide |
Abnormal |
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Bipolar 1 |
Depression w/ manic |
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Bipolar 2 |
Depression w/ hypomania |
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Dysthymia's new term in DSM |
Persistent depressive disorder |
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Cyclothymic disorder |
Does not meet criteria for bipolar disorder but has similar but less severe symptoms |
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Monoamine theory |
Catcholamine theory of depression: too few serotonin & norepinephrine = depression while too much = mania |
Abnormal |
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Monoamine theory |
Catcholamine theory of depression: too few serotonin & norepinephrine = depression while too much = mania |
Abnormal |
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Premenstrual dysphoria disorder (PDD) |
Approx 20% of women of reproductive age. Dysphoric or depressed mood, anger,& physiological symptoms a few days before menstruation |
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Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder |
Present during childhood, characterized by negative moods accompanied by poor temper control (even at minor provocations) |
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Excoriation |
Skin picking disorder |
Abnormal |
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Somatoform disorders |
Physical symptoms that are associated with medical conditions but are not fully explained by medical conditions |
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Conversion disorder |
Hysteria. Unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor/sensory functions |
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Illness anxiety disorder |
Hypochondraisis. Preoccupation with fears of having a serious medical condition due to misinterpretation of bodily signs/symptoms even when presented with evidence against their fear |
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Dissociative amnesia |
Inability to recall a recent past experience (not due to any neurological disorder) |
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Dissociative fugue |
Amnesia that accompanies a sudden/unexpected move away from one's home or location of usual activities (confused about identity & may assume a new identity) |
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Dissociative identity disorder, famous cases |
Sybil: 15 diff personalities Truddle: 92 separate personalities |
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Amenhorrhea |
Cessation of menstruation. Common in female anorexia |
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Schizoid personality disorder |
Pervasive detachment from social relationships & restricted range of emotional expression |
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Primary interventions |
Efforts to seek out & eradicate conditions that foster mental illnesses & establish conditions that foster mental health |
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David Rosenhan |
Hospital psychiatric study of admitting themselves by faking symptoms |
Abnormal |
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Thomas Szasz |
Viewed abnormal behaviours/symptoms as resulting from different cultural norms rather than as illnesses |
Abnormal |
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Systems psychology |
Baker, Bates. Viewed human behaviour from the context of complex systems (organizational psychology, family therapy) |
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Allport |
Functional autonomy, idiographic & nomothetic methods |
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Bandura |
Social learning theory, bobo doll |
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Bem |
Adrogyny. Argued that masculinity & femininity are separate dimensions of gender |
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Cattell |
Factor analysis to personality |
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Erikson |
Ego psychologist, psychosocial stages of conflict in development |
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Eysenck |
Introversion/extroversion, stability-neuroticism |
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Kelly |
Individual as a scientist (construct schemas of what other people will do based on past experiences, knowledge and etc). Anxious ppl have difficulties constructing & understanding the variables in their environment |
Abnormal/personality |
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Horney |
Relating -> moving away, towards, or against. Neurotic individual governed by 1 of 10 needs |
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Kernberg |
Object relations theorist |
Abnormal/personality |
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Klein |
Object relations theorist |
Personality |
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Lewin |
Phenomenological personality theorist, field theory |
Personality |
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Mahler |
Object relations theorist |
Personality |
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Maslow |
Hierarchy of needs, self-actualization, phenomenological |
Personality |
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McClelland |
Need for achievement trait (N-Ach) |
Personality |
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Winnicott |
Object relations |
Personality |
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Rotter |
Locus of control |
Personality |
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Witkin |
Field dependence, rod&frame test |
Personality |
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Bleuler |
Coined Schizoprenia |
Abnormal |
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Dix |
19th century advocate for asylum reform |
Abnormal |
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Kreaplin |
Created classification system for mental illnesses (precursor to DSM) |
Abnormal |
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Pinel |
Reformed asylum in Paris in late 18th century |
Abnormal |
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Rosenhan |
Hospital study of being labeled mentally ill |
Abnormal |
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Seligman |
Learned helplessness theory of depression |
Abnormal |
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Dunning-Kruger effect |
Overestimation of one's own abilities/performance due to a lack of skill in recognizing their mistakes |
Social |
