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47 Cards in this Set
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Social Psychology |
the way individual's thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by others |
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Seven broad topics in Social Psychology |
Person perception, attribution processes, interpersonal attraction, attitudes, conformity and obedience, behaviour in groups, social neuroscience |
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Person Perception |
- the process of forming impressions of others - Effects of physical appearance: good looking people command more of our attention than less attractive people - social schemas: organized clusters of ideas about categories of social events and people - stereotypes: a cognitive process that is frequently automatic and that saves on time and effort required to get a handle on people individually |
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Attribution Processes |
- inferences that people draw about the causes of events, other's behaviour and their own behaviour - internal vs. external: people locate the cause of behaviour either within a person, attributing to personal factors or outside a person, attributing it to environmental factors |
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Bias in Attribution |
- Fundamental Attribution Error: refers to observers' bias in favour of internal attributions in explaining others' behaviour - Actor-Observer Bias: actors favour external attributions for their behaviour, whereas observers are more likely to explain the same behaviour with internal attributions - Defensive Attribution: tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way |
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Interpersonal Attraction |
- positive feelings toward another - variety of experiences including liking, friendship, admiration, lust and love - Matching Hypothesis: males and females of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners - Similarity effects: couples tend to be similar in age, race, religion, social class, personality, education, intelligence, physical attractiveness and attitudes |
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Passionate and Compassionate Love |
Passionate Love: complete absorption in another that includes tender sexual feelings and the agony and ecstasy of intense emotion Compassionate Love: warm, trusting, tolerant affection for another whose life is deeply intertwined with one's own - Intimacy: warmth, closeness and sharing in a relationship - Commitment: an intent to maintain a relationship in spite of the difficulties and costs that may arise |
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Adult Attachment |
Secure Adults (56%): relatively easy to get close to others, described their love relationships as trusting, rarely worried about being abandoned and fewest divorces Anxious-Ambivalent Adults (20%): preoccupation with love accompanied by expectations of rejection and described their love relationships as volatile and marked by jealousy Avoidant Adults (24%): found it difficult to get close to others and described their love relationships as lacking intimacy and trust |
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Attachment dimensions |
Attachment anxiety: reflects how much people worry that their partners will not be available when needed. Stems from doubts about their lovability Attachment avoidance: reflects the degree to which people feel uncomfortable with closeness and intimacy and therefore tend to maintain emotional distance from their partners |
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Attitudes |
positive or negative evaluations of objects of thought three types of components - Cognitive: beliefs that people hold about the object of an attitude - Affective: emotional feelings stimulated by an object of thought - Behavioural: predispositions to act in certain ways toward an attitude object |
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Factors in Persuasion |
source: person who sends a communication receiver: person whom message is sent to message: information transmitted by source channel: medium through which message is sent - source has high credibility - persuasion messages attempt to arouse fear - Mere Exposure Effect: repeated exposures to a stimulus promotes greater liking of the sitmulus |
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Theories of Attitude Formation and Change |
Learning Theory: - may be learned from parents, peers, media, cultural traditions - agreement from others generally functions as a reinforcer - another person's attitude may rub off through observational learning Dissonance Theory: - inconsistency among attitudes propels people in the direction of attitude change Elaboration Liklihood Model: - two basic "routes" to persuasion - Central route: people carefully ponder the content and logic of persuasive messages - Peripheral route: persuasion depends on non message factors, such as attractiveness and credibility |
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Conformity and Obedience |
- social roles: widely shared expectations about how people in certain positions are supposed to behave Zimbardo's Prison Experiment (1973) - corruption in prison's - bad seeds or bad soil? - 22 subjects randomly assigned to role of guard or prisoner - after 6 days of stimulation study was called off - indoctrination into roles that could not be attributed to personal dispositions - guards devised cruel routines, prisoners broke down |
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Conformity |
occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure adjusting behaviour or thinking to bring it in line with some group standard Soloman Asch's Experiment (early 50's) - matching the length of the line - subject conforms to what the accomplice's choose 37% of the time - factors that promote conformity: group size, group unanimity/ambiguity of situation, group pressure |
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Obedience |
form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone is position of authority Milgrim's Study: - wanted to study tendency to obey authority figures, was troubled by how readily German's had followed order of Hitler - electrocute accomplice of experimenter and see if participant obeyed the authority or stopped giving the shocks - Milgrim argued that strong pressure from an authority figure can make decent people do indecent things to others |
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Behaviour in Groups |
Bystander effect: people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone - diffusion of responsibility Social Loafing: reduction in effort when individuals work in groups as compared to working individually Group Polarization: when group discussion strengthens a group's dominant point of view and produces a shift toward a more extreme decision Groupthink: when members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision Group Cohesiveness: strength of the liking relationships linking group members to each other and to the group itself |
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Social Neuroscience |
an approach to research and theory in social psychology that "integrates models of neuroscience and social psychology to study the mechanisms of social behaviour" |
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Prejudice |
a negative attitude held toward members of a group 3 components: - beliefs: sterotypes - emotions: eg. hostility - predisposition to action: eg. discrimination may lead to discrimination - involves behaving differently, usually unfairly towards members of a group Roots of prejudice: - observational learning: authoritarianism, responsible for the transmission of prejudices across generations |
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Abnormal Behaviour |
The medical model proposes that it is useful to think of abnormal behaviour as a disease 1) Deviance: behaviour deviates from what society considers acceptable 2) Maladaptive behaviour: everyday adaptive behaviour is impaired 3) Personal distress: personal suffering, unhappy |
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Stereotypes of Psychological Disorders |
- Psychological disorders are incurable - People with psychological disorders are often violent and dangerous - people with psychological disorders behave in bizarre ways and are very different from normal people |
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DSM-5 |
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - current 5th edition, released in 2013 - three sections 1) historical material 2) criteria for main diagnostic categories 3) assessment measures and criteria for psychological disorders that are subject for further study - largely categorical but does incorporate dimensional ratings |
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Neurotic |
distressing problem but person is still coherent and can function socially (once acute phase of disorder is treated) |
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Psychotic |
more bizarre, involving delusions or hallucinations. Individual has impaired thought processes and cannot function socially. Treatment is long term. |
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder |
- marked by a chronic, high level of anxiety that is not tied to any specific threat - free floating anxiety because it is non-specific - accompanied by physical symptoms - gradual onset, seen more in females then males |
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Specific Phobias |
- persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that presents no realistic danger * mild phobias are common - people have phobic disorders when their fear interferes with their everyday life * accompanied by physical symptoms of anxiety |
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Panic Disorders |
Recurrent attacks of overwhelming anxiety that usually occur suddenly a |
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Etiology of Mood Disorders |
Genetic Vulnerability - concordance rates in twins: 65%, fraternal 15% Biological and Neurochemical Factors - abnormal levels of: norepinephrine and serotonin - depression occurs when major life stress causes neurochemical reactions that suppress neurogenesis Cognitive Factors - Beck: Negative (dysfunctional) beliefs about the self - Seligman: Attribution Theory -> internal, stable, global attributions for negative events |
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Schizophrenia |
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, negative symptoms and deterioration of adaptive behaviour "Split-mind" - Delusions and Irrational thought - Deterioraion of adative behaviour - hallucinations - disturbed emotions - positive vs. negative symptoms * Positive: hallucinations, delusions, bizarre behaviour and wild flights of ideas * Negative: flattened emotions, social withdrawal, apathy, impaired attention |
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Etiology of Schizophrenia |
Genetic Vulnerability - inherit a polygenically transmitted vulnerability Neurochemical Factors - excess dopamine levels - most drugs useful in treatment dampen dopamine activity in the brain Structural Abnormalities in Brain - enlarged ventricles - assumed to reflect degeneration of nearby brain tissue - reductions in both grey and white matter - disruptions in the brain's neural connectivity, which impairs normal communication Neurodevelopment Hypothesis: - caused by disruptions in normal maturational processes of brain before or at birth - insults to the brain before or during birth can cause subtle neurological damage that elevates individuals vulnerability years later |
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Personality Disorders |
Cluster A: Odd-Eccentric - distrustful, socially aloof, unable to connect with others - schizoid, schizotypical, paranoid Cluster B: Dramatic/Impulsive - self-centred, emotional, no impulse control - histrionic, narcissistic, anti-social, borderline Cluster C: Anxious/Fearful - maladaptive efforts to control anxiety - dependent, obsessive-compulsive, avoidant |
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Types of Therapies |
1. Insight Therapies - engage in verbal interactions - pursue increased insight regarding the nature of the client's difficulties and to sort through possible solutions 2. Behavioural Therapies - principles of learning - direct efforts to alter problematic responses and maladaptive habits - classical conditioning, operant conditioning or observational learning 3. Biomedical Therapies - interventions into a person's biological functioning - drug therapy ad electroconvulsive therapy |
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Psychologists |
- emphasize the treatment of full-fledged disorders - traditionally had to earn doctorate degree, more recently some of the provinces and territories have changed regulations to allow Ph.D. or an M.A. - usually use insight or behavioural therapy |
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Psychiatrists |
- specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders - devote more time to relatively severe disorders and less time to marital, family, job and school problems - have an M.D degree - emphasize drug therapies |
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Psychoanalysis |
Emphasizes the recovery of unconscious conflicts, motives and defences through techniques such as free association and transference - Freud believed that neurotic problems are caused by unconscious conflicts left over from early childhood - People depend on defence mechanisms to avoid confronting these conflicts which remain hidden in the unconscious - To explore unconscious: *Free Association: client's spontaneously express their thoughts and feelings exactly as they occur with as little censorship as possible *Dream Analysis: therapist interprets symbolic meaning of the client's dreams *Transference: client unconsciously starts relating their therapist in ways that mimic critical relationships in their lives |
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Client-Centred Therapy |
Emphasizes providing a supportive emotional climate for clients, who play a major role in determining the pace and direction of the therapy - Carl Rogers devised it using humanistic perspective - Help clients realize they don't have to worry about constantly pleasing others and winning acceptance Must provide: - Genuineness: communicate honestly and spontaneously - Unconditional Positive Regard: must show complete, non-judgemental acceptance - Empathy: understand the client's world from the client's point of view Try to function like human mirrors, reflecting statements back to client's but with enhanced CLARITY |
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Positive Psychology |
Theory and research to better understand the positive, adaptive, creative and fulfilling aspects of human existence - Well Being Therapy: seeks to enhance clients' self-acceptance, purpose in life, autonomy and personal growth - Positive Psychotherapy: attempts to get clients to recognize their blessings, savour positive experiences and find meaning in their lives |
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Group Therapy |
Simultaneous treatment of several clients in a group - participants essentially function as therapists for one another - provide acceptance and emotional support - therapists responsible for selecting participants, setting goals for group, initiating and maintaining therapeutic process and protecting clients from harm - clients come to realize they are not alone in their misery |
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Systematic Desensitization |
Used to reduce phobic client's anxiety responses through counterconditioning - goal is to weaken association between conditioned stimulus (the bridge) and conditioned response of anxiety 1. Therapist helps build anxiety hierarchy 2. Training the client in deep muscle relaxation 3. Client tries to work through hierarchy, learning to remain relaxed while imagining each stimulus 4. Exposure Therapies - clients are confronted with situations that they fear so that they learn that these situations are really harmless |
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Aversion Therapy |
An aversive stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elicits an undesirable response - not widely used and is usually only one element in a larger treatment program - treated successfully: drug and alcohol abuse, sexual deviance, gambling, shoplifting, stuttering, smoking, overeating |
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Social Skills Training |
Designed to improve interpersonal skills that emphasizes modelling, behavioural rehearsal and shaping - client is encouraged to watch socially skilled friends and colleagues to acquire appropriate responses through observation - practice social techniques in structured role-playing exercises - gradually asked to handle more complicated and delicate social situations |
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Cognitive-Behavioural Treatments |
Varied combinations of verbal interventions and behaviour modification techniques to help clients change maladaptive patterns of thinking - Cognitive Therapy: Uses specific strategies to correct habitual thinking errors that underlie various types of disorders - goal is to change clients' negative thoughts and appraisals and maladaptive beliefs Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy: - emerged from CBT - training in meditation and in challenging negative thoughts - stop identification with irrational beliefs - practice acceptance and self-compassion |
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Psychopharmacotherapy |
Treatment of mental disorders with medication |
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Anti-anxiety Drugs |
Relieve tension, apprehension and nervousness - effects measured in hours so impact is short-lived - common side effects: drowsiness, depression, nausea, confusion |
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Anti-psychotic Drugs |
Gradually reduce psychotic symptoms including hyperactivity, mental confusion, hallucinations and delusions - appear to decrease activity at DOPAMINE synapses - Common side effects: drowsiness, constipation, dry mouth, symptoms of Parkinson's - Tardive Dyskinesia: a neurological disorder marked by involuntary writing and tic-like movements of the mouth, tongue, face, hands or feet |
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Anti-Depressant Drugs |
Gradually elevate mood and help bring people out of depression - beneficial for about two thirds of patients - newer class of anti-depressants: Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI's) - exert effects gradually but about 60% of patients improvements tend to occur in first two weeks |
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Mood Stabilizers |
Drugs used to control mood swings in patients with bipolar mood disorders - Lithium, valproate |
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Electroconvulsive Therapy |
Electric shock is used to produce a cortical seizure accompanied by convulsions - recommended for treatment of depression - favourable evidence suggests conservative use of ECT in treating severe mood disorders in patients who have not responded to medication - relapse rates are distressingly high Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): new technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): Thin electrode is surgically implanted in brain and connected to an implanted pulse generator so that various electrical currents can be delivered to brain tissue adjacent to the electrode |
