Psyc Ch 7 & 12

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human development

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the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death

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longitudinal desgin

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research design in whihc one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time

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cross-sectional design

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research design in which several differnt age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time

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cross-sequential design

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research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed for a period of no more than six years

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nature

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the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

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nurture

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the influence of the enviroment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

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cognitive development

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the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory

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scheme (plural schema)

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a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events

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sesorimotor stage

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Piaget's first stage of cognitiive development in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the enviroment

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object permanence

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the kowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

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preoperational stage

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Piaget's second stage of cognitive development in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world

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egocentrism

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the inability to see the world through anyone elses eyes

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centration

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in Piaget's theory, the tendency of a young child to foucs only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features

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conservation

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in Piaget's theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the objects nature

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irreversibility

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in Piaget's theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

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formal operations

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Piaget's last stage of cognitive development in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking

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scaffolding

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process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

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zone of proximal development (ZPD)

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Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher

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tempermant

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the behavioral characteristics that are faily well established at birth, such as easy, difficult, and slow to warm up

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attachment

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the emotional bond bwetween an infant and the primary caregiver

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trust versus mistrust

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first stage of personality development in which the infants basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of consistent or inconsistent care

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autonomy versus shame and doubt

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second stage of personality deveoplment in which the toddler strives for physical independence

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initiative versus guilt

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third stage of personality development in whihc the preschool-aged child strives for emotional and psychological independence and attempts to satisfy curiosity about the world

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industry versus inferiority

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fourth stage of personality development in which the adolescent strives for a sense of competence and self-esteem

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gender

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the behavior associated with being male or female

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gender identity

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perception of one's gender and the behavior that is associated with that gender

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adolescence

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the period of life from about age 13 to the early 20's, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult

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puberty

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the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak

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personal fable

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type of thought common to adolescnets in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

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imaginary audience

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type of thought common to adolescents in which young people are just as concerned about the adolescents thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are

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preconventional morality

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first level of Kohlbergs stages of moral development in which the childs behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior

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conventional morality

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second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the societys norms of behavior

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postconventional morality

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third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral developmnt in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and which may be in disagreement with accepted social norms

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identity versus role confusion

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fifth stage of personality development in which the adolescent must find a consisten sense of self

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menopause

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the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of womans reproductive capability

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andropause

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gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of males

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intimacy

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an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self

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generativity

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providing guidance to one's children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career or volunteer work

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integrity

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sense of wholeness that comes from having a lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego

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activity theory

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theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby

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personality

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the unique and relatively stable ways in whihc people think, feel, and behave

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character

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value judgments of apersons moral and ethical behavior

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temperament

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the enduring characterstics with which each person is born

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preconscious mind

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level of the mind in whihc information is available but not currently conscious

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conscious mind

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level of the mind that is aware of immediate surroundings and perceptions

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unconscious mind

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level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness

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id

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part of the personality present at birht and completly unconscious

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libido

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the instinctual energy that may come into conflict with the demands of a society's standards for behavior

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pleasure principle

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principle by which the id functions; the immediate satisfaction of needs without regard for the consequences

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ego

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part of the personality that develops out of a need to deal with reality, most conscious, rational, and logical

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reality principle

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principle by which the ego functions; the satisfaction of the demands of the id only when negative consequences will not result

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superego

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part of the personality that acts as a moral center

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ego ideal

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part of the superego that contains the standards for moral behavior

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conscience

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part of the superego that produces pride or guilt, depending on how well behavior matches or does not match the ego ideal

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fixation

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disorder in which the person does not

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reality principle

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principle by which the ego functions; the satisfaction of the demands of the id only when negative consequences will not result

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superego

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part of the personalitythat acts as a moral center

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conscience

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part of the super ego that produces pride or guilt, depending on how well behavior matches or does not match the ego ideal

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fixation

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disorder in which the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage, resulting in personality traits and behavior associated with that earlier stage

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psychosexual stages

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five stages of personality development proposed by Freud and tied to the sexual development of the child

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oral stage

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first stage occurring in the first year of life in whihc the mouth is the erogenous zone and weaning is the primary conflict

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anal stage

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second stage occuring from about 1 to 3 years of age, in which the anus is the erogenous zone and toilet training is the source of conflict

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anal expulsive personality

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a person fixated in the anal stage who is messy, destructive, and hostile

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anal retentive personality

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a person fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn

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phallic stage

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third stage occuring from about 3 to 6 years of age, in which the child discovers sexual feelings

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Oedipus complex

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situation occuring in the phallic stage in which a child develops a sexual attraction tot he opposite-sex parent and jeaousy of the same-sex parent

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identification

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defense mechanism in whihc a person tries to become else to deal with anxiety

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latency

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fourth stage occurring during the school years, in which the sexual feelings of the child are repressed while the child develops in other ways

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psychoanalysis

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Freud's term for both the theory of personality and the therapy based on it

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neo-Freudians

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followers of Freud who developed their own competing theories of psychoanalysis

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personal unconscious

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Jung's name for the unconscious mind as described by Frued

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collective unconscious

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Jung's name for the memeories shard by all members of the human species

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archetypes

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Jung's collective, universal human memories

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basic anxiety

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anxiety created when a child is born into the bigger and more powerful world of older children and adults

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neurotic personalities

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maladaptive ways of dealing with relationships in horney's theory

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habits

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in behaviorism, sets of well-learned responses that have become automatic

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social cognitive learning theorists

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theorists who emphasize the importance of both the influences of other peoples behavior and of a persons own expectancies on learning

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social cognitive view

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learning theory that includes cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging, memory, and imitation of models

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reciprocal determinism

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Bandura's explanation of how the factors of enviroment, persnoal characteristics, and behavior can interact to determine future behavior

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self-efficacy

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individual's perception of how effective a behavior will be in any particular circumstance

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humanistic perspective

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the "third force" in psychology that focuses on those aspects of personality that make people uniquely human, such as subjective feelings and freedom of choice

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self-actualizing tendency

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the striving of fulfill one's innate capacities and capabilities

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self-concept

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the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important, significant people in one's life

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self

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arechetype that works with the ego to manage other archetypes and balance the personality

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real self

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one's perception of actual characteristics, traits, and abilities

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ideal self

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one's perception of whom one should be or would like to be

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positive regard

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warmth, affection, love, and respect that come from significant others in one's life

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unconditional positive regard

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positive regard that is given without conditions or strings attached

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conditional positive regard

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positive regard that is given only when the person is diong what the providers of positive regard wish

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fully functioning person

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a person who is in touch witha nd trusting of the deepest, innermost urges and feelings

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trait theories

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theories that endeavor to describe the characteristics that make up human personality in an effort to predict future behavior

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trait

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a consistent, enduring way of thinking, feeling, or behaving

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surface traits

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aspects of perosnlaity that can easily be seen by other people in the outward actions of a person

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source traits

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the more basic traits that underlie the surface traits, forming the core of personality

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introversion

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dimension of perosnality in which people tend to withdraw from excessive stimulation

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five-factor model (Big Five)

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model of personality traits that describes five basic trait dimensions

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openness

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one of the five factors; willingness to try new things and be open to new experiences

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conscientiousness

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the care a person gives to organization and thoughtfulness of others; dependability

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extraversion

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dimension of personality referring to ones need to be with other people

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extraverts

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people who are outgoing and sociable

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introverts

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people who prefer solitude and dislike being the center of attention

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agreeableness

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the emotional style of a person that may range from easygoing, friendly, and likeable to grumpy, crabby, and unpleasant

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neuroticism

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degree of emotional instability or stability

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trait-situation interaction

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the assumption that the particular circumstances of any given situation will influence the way in which a trait is expressed

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behavioral genetics

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field of study devoted to discovering the genetic bases for personality characteristics

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halo effect

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tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the clients behavior and statements

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interview

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method of personality assessment in which the professional asks questions of the client and allows the client to answer, either in a structured or unstructured fashion

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projection

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defense mechanism involving placing, or "projecting" ones own unacceptable thought onto others, as if the thoughts actually belonged to those others and not to oneself

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projective tests

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personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind

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Rorschach inkblot test

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projective that uses 10 inkblots as the ambiguous stimuli

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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

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projective test that uses 20 pictures of people in ambiguous situations as the visual stimuli

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subjective

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referring to concepts and impressions that are only valid within a particular persons perception and may be influenced by biases, prejudice, and personal experiences

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direct observation

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assessment in which the professional observes the client engaged in ordinary, day-to-day behvaior in either a clinical or natural setting

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rating scale

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assessment in which a numerical value is assisgned to specific behavior that is listed in the scale

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frequency count

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assessment in which the frequency of a particular behavior is counted

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personality inventory

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paper and pencil or computerized test that consits of statements that require a specific, standerdized response from the person taking the test