Psyc 500 1

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Developmental psychopathology

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the study of the developmental processes that contribute to the formation of, or resistance to, psychopathology

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Etiology

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the study of the causes or of the necessary and sufficient conditions for producing various psychopathologies

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Respondent conditioning

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a form of conditioning in which a previously neutral stimulus takes on the properties of a stimulus that innately evokes a response

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Operant conditioning

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a form of conditioning in which the persistence of a response depends on its effects on the environment

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Reinforcement

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an increase in the probability that a response will occur to a contiguously presented stimulus

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Extinction

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the gradual disappearance of a learned behavior through the removal of reinforcements

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Punishment

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presentation of an aversive stimulus that decreases the probability that the response leading to it will occur

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Avoidance learning

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a form of learning in which an organism, having experienced an aversive stimulus, behaves in order to prevent future encounters with that stimulus

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Imitation

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learning by observing the behavior in others

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Behavior deficit or excess

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the behaviorists' conceptualization of psychopathology as behaviors occurring at a lower or at a higher frequency or intensity than is expected within a given society

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Reciprocal determinism

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in social learning theory, the idea that both the individual and the environment influence one another rather than the individual's being the passive recipient of environmental influences

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Self-efficacy

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an individual's estimation of the likelihood of achieving a given outcome

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Schema

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for Piaget, cognitive structures comprising children's developing understanding of their experience of the environment and of themselves; for social cognitive theories, stable mental structures incorporating perceptions of self and others and including past experiences and future expectations

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Assimilation

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in Piaget's theory, the process of transforming information so as to make it fit with an existing cognitive schema

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Accommodation

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in Piaget's theory, the process of changing an existing cognitive schema in order to take into account new information from the environment

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Equilibrium

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in Piaget's theory, the balance between assimilation and accommodation

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Id

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in Freud's structural theory, the biologically based pleasure seeking source of all psychic energy

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Ego

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in Freud's structural theory, the psychic component responsible for learning the nature of reality in order to gratify the id's demands for maximal pleasure, on the one hand, and to avoid the painful censure of the superego, on the other hand

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Defense mechanisms

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unconscious strategies for reducing anxiety

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Superego

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the moral component, or conscience, in Freud's structural theory; initially, it is perfectionistic, requiring absolute obedience and punishing transgressions with guilt feelings

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Psychosexual theory

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Freud's developmental theory in which each stage is marked by a change in the source of erotic bodily sensations: personality development

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Oral stage

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in Freud's psychosexual theory, the first stage of development, in which pleasure is derived from sucking and biting and attachment to the caregiver is formed

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Anal stage

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in Freud's psychosexual theory, the second stage of development, in which pleasure is derived from retaining and evacuating feces and the toddler confronts the issue of autonomy versus compliance

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Phallic stage

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in Freud's psychosexual theory, the third stage of development in which the preschooler is expansive and assertive and wished to be the exclusive love object of the other-sex parent

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Oedipus complex

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in Freud's psychosexual theory, the universal desire of the preschool boy to take possession of the mother and eliminate the father

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Latency stage

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in Freud's psychosexual theory, the fourth stage of development in which concerns about sexuality diminish and the child's attention is drawn to mastery of social and academic environments

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Genital stage

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in Freud's psychosexual theory, the last stage of development, during which mature sexuality and true intimacy are achieved

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Fixations

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the persistence of normal behavior beyond the point where it is developmentally appropriate

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Regression

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the return of behaviors that once were developmentally appropriate but no longer are

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Ego psychology

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associated with Erik Erikson, an outgrowth of psychoanalytic theory that focuses on the reality-oriented, adaptive aspects of the psyche

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Object relations

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in Freudian theory, the term used for an emotional attachment to another person

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Object constancy

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in object relations theory, the ability to integrate both positive and negative feelings into a single representation of the self or other

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Boundaries

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the separation between individuals or subsystems within the family, such as between marital and parent-child relationships

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Enmeshment

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family patter in which family members do not differentiate between one another; absent or unclear boundaries

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Parent-child coalition

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Minuchin's term for a family pattern in which a child sides with one parent against another

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Triangulation

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Minuchin's term for a family pattern in which the child is forced to side with one parent against the other

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Detouring

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Minuchin's term for parents' avoidance of their own conflicts by regarding their child as their sole problem

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Risk

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factors that increase the probability that development will be diverted from its normal path, resulting either in clinically significant problem behavior or psychopathology

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Risk mechanism

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the underlying developmental processes that account for the negative effects of risk variables

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Vulnerability

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a factor that increase the likelihood that a child will succumb to risk

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Potentiating factor

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a variable that increases the impact of a risk factor

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Protective factors

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factors that promote healthy development and counteract the negative effects of risks

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Resilient

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a child's ability to make a good adjustment in spite of being at high risk for developing a disturbance

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Protective mechanisms

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the underlying developmental processes that account for the positive effects of protective factors

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Developmental pathways

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the risk and protective factors responsible for diverting development from its normal course, maintaining the deviation, or returning development to its normal course

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Comorbidity

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the co-occurrence of two or more psychopathologies

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Equifinality

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refers to the idea that a number of different pathways may lead to the same outcome

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Multifinality

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the idea that a single risk factor may have a number of different consequences depending upon contextual and intraindividual factors

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Continuity

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consistency in the presence or absence of a disorder from one developmental period to another

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Discontinuity

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inconsistency in the presence or absence of a disorder from one developmental period to another

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Developmental transformation

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a change in the outward manifestation of a disorder due to age related changes in individuals or their environments

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Transaction

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a series of dynamic, reciprocal interactions between the child, the family, and the social context

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Stage-salient issues

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at each age period, the key developmental tasks that the child must accomplish in order to successfully move forward in development

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Developmental delay

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development that proceeds at a significantly slower pace than normal

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Asynchrony

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disjointed or markedly uneven rates of progression among developmental variables

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Precocity

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an accelerated rate of development that leads to an attempt to take on adult roles and responsibilities before the child is prepared to do so successfully

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Developmental deviation

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emergence of a behavior that is so qualitatively different from the normative that it would be considered inappropriate at age stage of development

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Adaptational failure

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a conceptualization of psychopathology in which disorder is viewed as stemming form the child's inability to adapt to the expectations of the environment

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Retrospective strategy

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a research technique involving reconstructing the origins of a psychopathology through inquiring about the past history of the disturbed child

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Follow-back strategy

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a research technique in which the origins of a psychopathology are reconstructed by obtaining data from records made at a previous time period, such as school or court records

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Follow-up strategy

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a research technique involving following children for a considerable period of time in order to obtain data on the antecedents of various psychopathologies

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Attrition

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the loss of subjects during longitudinal studies

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Cohort effect

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the possibility that childrens' behavior might be different because they were born in different eras and therefore had different experiences

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Cross-sectional approach

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a research technique in which data consists of studying different age groups at one point in time

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Accelerated longitudinal approach

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a research technique in which data on the origins of a psychopathology are obtained from different age groups that are subsequently followed until the children in the younger groups are the same age as those in the next older groups

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Mediator

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a variable that accounts for the effects of one variable upon another

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Moderator

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a variable that affects the strength or direction of the relationship between one variable and another

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Reliability

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the consistency with which an assessment instrument performs

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Validity

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the degree to which an instrument evaluates what it intends to evaluate

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Multiaxial classification

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a diagnostic system whereby individuals are assessed in terms of a number of dimensions rather than in terms of a single classification

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Syndromes

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a group of behaviors or symptoms that tend to occur together in a particular disorder

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Internalizing

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a classification of psychopathologies based on if the child suffers

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Externalizing

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a classification of psychopathologies based on if the environment suffers

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Adjustment disorders

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deviant behavior that is a reaction to a specific event of events, such as parental death or divorce

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Mental retardation

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a condition characterized by subnormal intelligence, deficits in adaptive behavior, and onset typically under the age of 18 years

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Learning disorders

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learning problems due to a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written language and not due to mental retardation, emotional disturbance, environmental disadvantage, or specific perceptual or motor handicaps

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Autism

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a severe disorder of the infancy and toddler period marked by extreme aloneness, a pathological need for sameness, and mutism or noncommunicative speech

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Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

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developmentally inappropriate inattention accompanied by motor restlessness and impulsivity

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Conduct disorder

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behaviors in which children act out their feelings or impulses toward others in an antisocial or destructive fashion

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Oppositional defiant disorder

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purposeful defiance of adults' requests resulting in violation of minor rules

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Enuresis

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involuntary urination during the day or night in children 5 years or older

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Encopresis

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involuntary soiling with feces in a child age 5 and older

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Separation anxiety disorder

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excessive anxiety concerning separation from those whom the child is attached

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Reactive attachment disorder

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a disorder characterized by disturbed social relations due to pathological caregiving in the first three years of life

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Substance abuse

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a pattern of excessive use of a chemical substance to the extent that it interferes with work or school and interpersonal relationships

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Schizophrenia

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a severe, pervasive disorder consisting of delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, inappropriate affect, disorganized of bizarre behavior, and the negative symptoms of flat affect, avolition, alogia, and anhedonia

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Major depression

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an acute, debilitating disorder characterized by five or more symptoms, one of which is depressed mood in adults or irritability in children

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Dysthymic disorder

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characterized either by a depressed mood or by irritability in children, along with at least two other specific symptoms of depression

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Bipolar disorder

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a severe form of psychopathology characterized by depression alternating with states of euphoria or over-activity

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Phobia

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an intense, persistent, irrational fear of an animate or inanimate object or of a situation

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Social phobia

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a disorder characterized by excessive anxiety and avoidance of social situations

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Obsession

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an irrational thought, the repeated occurrence of which is beyond the individual's conscious command

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Compulsion

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an irrational act that an individual is compelled to do

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Posttraumatic stress disorder

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a disorder resulting from experiencing an event involving actual or threatened death or injury to the self or others

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Generalized anxiety disorder

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a disorder characterized by excessive worry and anxiety that significantly interferes with functioning across a variety of situations

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Anorexia nervosa

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a voluntary restriction of food and/or an involvement in purging in an active pursuit of thinness that results in at least a 15% loss of body weight

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Bulimia nervosa

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an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by attempts to prevent weight gain either through self induced vomiting or misuse of laxatives in the purging type or through fasting or excessive exercise in the non-purging type

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Gender identity disorder

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a disorder characterized by a strong and persistent desire to be, or belief that one is, a member of the other sex

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personality disorders

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deeply ingrained, maladaptive behaviors that, which more pervasive than the anxiety disorders, still do not significantly diminish the individual's reality contact

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Borderline personality disorder

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a disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affect

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Intelligence test

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standardized techniques for measuring intellectual functioning

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Adaptive behavior

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the ability to cope with environmental demands, such as those for self-care, conventional social interactions, and independent functioning in the community, at an age-appropriate level

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Familial retardation

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retardation characterized by a mild degree of retardation with no clear organic cause

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Brain damage

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damage to the brain can be defined neurologically in terms of the nature, site and size of the damage, behaviorally in terms of impaired functions, or etiologically in terms of the source of the damage

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

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a device for recording the electric activity of the brain

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Even related potential (ERP)

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an electroencephalographic technique that records the brain response to a given stimulus so that one can tell whether the response is characteristic (normal) or deviant

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Computerized axial tomography (CAT)

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uses computer driven x ray machines to produce detailed images both of the brain's surface and of the levels below, making it possible to locate lesions at any level of the brain

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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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a brain imaging technique that generates 3D images of various brain structures by using images fro successive layers of the brain

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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

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a brain imaging technique that tracks increases and decreases in oxygen in the brain as an individual performs a given task and subsequently can locate where the greatest areas of activation occur

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Positron emission tomography (PET)

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a brain scan technique that detects abnormal functioning in brains that might look structurally intact by recording the rate of metabolizing radioactive glucose that has been introduced to celebral arteries

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Executive functions

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the functions underlying flexible, goal-directed behavior; specifically, planning, working memory, set shifting, and inhibition of competing behaviors

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Neurotransmitters

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the chemical messengers responsible for communication among nerve cells

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Brain lateralization

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the differentiations of function between the left and right hemispheres

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Theory of mind

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a child's understanding that others have intentions, motivations, and perspectives different from one's own

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Hallucinations

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a sensory perception occurring in the absence of any appropriate external stimulus

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Delusions

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a firmly held, irrational belief that runs counter to reality and to the individual's culture or subculture

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Disorganized speech

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in schizophrenia, speech characterized by loose associations, illogical reasoning, fragmentation, and bizarreness

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Disorganized behavior

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in schizophrenia, behavior marked by extreme deviance, such as grimacing, off posturing, long periods of immobility, or self mutilation

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Diathesis-stress model

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vulnerability to develop a disorder along with stressors that will increase the likelihood that the disorder will appear

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Overinclusiveness

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a thought disorder in which ideas fit from one tangential association to another

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Sustained attention

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the ability to continue a task until it is completed

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Discrepancy model

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defining learning disability as the difference between what students should achieve in terms of their ability and their actual achievement

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Phonemes

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the sound units of speech

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Phonological awareness

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recognition of the fact that words are made up of separate sounds, or phonemes, an important function underlying the ability to read