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140 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are heuristics?
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Rules of thumb (mental shortcuts) for judgment relied on in estimated probabilities
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What is the representativeness heuristic?
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A heuristic estimating the probability of an instance being a member of a category
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What are 7 common errors that result from using the representativeness heuristic?
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1. Ignoring base rates (includes consensus info., stereotypes)
2. Ignoring predictive value of information (ex. source of description) 3. Misconception of chance (ex. thinking that H-T-H-T-T-H is more "random" than T-T-T-H-H-H in a coin toss) 4. Ignoring sample size (ex. failing to appreciate that small samples are more likely to stray from the population than large samples) 5. Failing to understand regression to the mean 6. The conjunction fallacy: incorrectly thinking that a conjunction of two outcomes is greater than the probability of each outcome alone (ex. probability that Linda is a bank teller vs. probability that Linda is a bank teller and a feminist) 7. Failure to use statistical heuristics |
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What did Kahneman & Tversky (1973) find about errors in the representative heuristic?
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Participants relied heavily on the representativeness heuristic and ignored base rate information when estimating the probability that a subject was a lawyer or an engineer
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What is the availability heuristic?
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1. A heuristic used to judge probability or frequency of an instance
2. Based on ease of bringing examples of events to mind |
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When are people more likely to use base rate information?
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1. When base rates convey meaningful causal information
2. When chance factors are highlighted or when base rates are made more salient |
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What is Kelley's covariation model of attribution?
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When attributing, we should take 3 factors into account:
1. Distinctiveness: does the effect occur only in the presence of one causal candidate? 2. Consistency: does the effect occur repeatedly in the presence of this causal candidate? 3. Consensus: does everyone respond in the same way to this causal candidate? (a base rate - tends to be underused) |
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What is the dilution effect?
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Nondiagnostic information can also dilute the impact of other kinds of diagnostic information; due to RH because any feature that is not part of the stereotype reduces the similarity between the instance and the category
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What are 3 factors that influence our use of heuristics?
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1. Knowledge about the domain (objectivity of domain, experience with domain)
2. Contextual clues a. salience of chance b. assumptions about communicative intent (ex. if importance of base rates made salient by researcher) c. predicting single events vs. long-run frequencies 3. Statistical education |
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What are errors resulting from use of the availability heuristic?
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1. Ignoring sample biases (ex. media coverage)
a. Salience: focusing our attention on a given individual will lead us to notice and recall more of this individual's contributions, and thus we will see the individual as more influential b. Egocentric bias: overestimate our contributions to joint endeavors because our own contributions are more available to us 2. Ignoring biases in accessible cognition a. One-sided questions (focusing on one thing makes it more available) b. Ease or difficulty of recall c. Explanation: act of explanation makes the subset of one's knowledge that supports the explained relation highly available, and we rely on the availability of beliefs supporting a particular explanation when assessing its plausibility d. Perseverance of refuted beliefs: Information remains available even after discredited |
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What is the simulation heuristic?
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A heuristic used to judge probability based on the ease of which an event or instance can be imagined or simulated
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Why is the availability heuristic due to ease of recall rather than content of recall?
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Schwartz et al. (1991): those who recalled less examples believe instance is more common because easier to recall
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Why might false confessions occur?
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1. Most innocent persons give up their Miranda rights because they have nothing to hide
2. Police tactics (deception, coercion) 3. Implantation of false memories and doubt |
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What is the framing effect?
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Effect of decision frame on decisions; if framed as gains we are more cautious; if framed as losses we are more risky
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What is anchoring?
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Making estimates by adjusting upward or downward from an anchor
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What is the positive test strategy?
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1. A one-sided search for evidence that supports a particular hypothesis (ex. when asked "is your friend extraverted?)
2. Okay when evidence is uniform, but biased when mixed evidence |
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What is the relationship between the positive test strategy and the confirmation bias?
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The positive test strategy causes a confirmation bias (ex. searching for evidence that supports your friend's extraversion results in the confirmation of the hypothesis that your friend is extraverted)
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What did Snyder & Cantor's (1979) study on the positive test strategy find regarding motivation?
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Even when assessing a neutral event (ex. whether Jane, hypothetical person, is suitable to be a realtor or librarian), participants still engaged in positive test strategy, therefore nothing to do with motivation
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What did Wilson & LaFleur (1995) find regarding the accuracy of predictions made through the positive test strategy?
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Reporting reasons for predicted behaviors did not increase accuracy, but did increase confidence in accuracy
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What did Davies (2003) find about link between interferences in recall and confirmation bias?
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Recalling evidence supporting a hypothesis interferes with recall of evidence disconfirming hypothesis, which leads to confirmation bias
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Why did the con-pro group in Davies' (2003) study not show confirmation bias?
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Because did positive-test strategy for disconfirming evidence first, recalled more disconfirming evidence
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What are 4 common errors in covariation detection?
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1. Positive test strategy - focusing only on A (covariation of 2 variables) while ignoring B (variable and non-variable), C (non-variable and variable), and D (non-variable and non-variable)
2. Small/biased sample while ignoring need for random sample 3. Misjudging unexpected matches as supporting cases 4. Forgetting disconfirming cases |
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What are illusory correlations?
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Seeing correlations that don't exist (ex. arthritis pain and bad weather) due to positive test strategy (ex. Chapman & Chapman homosexual Rorschach's) or memorability of simultaneous rare events (Hamilton & Gifford - small sample seen as more negative because population and negative behaviors were more rare)
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What factors increase our accuracy at detecting covariation (Kunda and Nisbett, 1986)?
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1. Familiarity of data
2. Codability of data |
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What is counterfactual thinking?
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1. Thinking about outcomes alternative to actual outcomes
2. Upward counterfactual - "If only..., then..." 3. Downward counterfactual - "At least..." |
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What is the first instinct fallacy?
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1. False belief that it is better to stick to your first instinct
2. Occurs because it is easier to generate counterfactual of changing correct answer to incorrect answer (If only I had stuck with my first instinct") - according to Kruger et al. (2005), more regrettable |
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What is Kruger et al.'s (2005) model of the first instinct fallacy?
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1. Switching answer from correct to incorrect leads to increased frustration
2. Frustration increases memory bias (frustrating event overestimated) 3. Memory bias leads to first instinct fallacy (I should always stick with my first answer) |
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What are downward counterfactuals?
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Imagining how an alternative outcome is worse than the actual outcome (at least...)
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What did the Markman, Mizoguichi & McMullen (2008) study find about the effect of downward counterfactual thinking on attitudes toward torture and ethical standards?
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Participants who engaged in downward counterfactual thinking in response to torture felt better about the torture and had lower ethical standards
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What are the effects of counterfactual thinking on self-esteem?
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1. Upward counterfactual can motivate or lower self-esteem (ex. If only I had studied more, I would have gotten a better mark)
2. Downward counterfactual can increase self-esteem but can lower motivation (ex. At least I studied at all) |
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What is a diagnosing strategy?
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Choosing questions that are most diagnostic of whether or not a hypothesis is true (ex. in assessing if one is extraverted, choosing "Do you like loud parties?" above "Do you talk loudly")
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What is the effect of one-sided questions on the positive-test strategy?
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Due to the availability heuristic, if we are asked one-sided questions (ex. "Are you assertive?"), we selectively recruit information that confirms the hypothesis using the positive-test strategy
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What did Shafir's (1993) study on the direction of questions conclude about the positive test strategy?
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When using the positive test strategy in judgments (ex. whether a parent should be given custody), we focus on information that makes one choice superior to the other. This can be the same answer depending on if the direction of the question is positive (selecting winners) or negative (weeding out losers).
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How can stereotypes be formed through illusory correlation (Hamilton & Gifford, 1976)?
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We are likely to overestimate the frequency of rare behaviors (ex. negative) among members of relatively small groups (ex. Group B, 5 people), which leads us to see an illusory correlation (stereotype) between group membership and the behavior
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What is Thagard's theory of explanatory coherance?
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We prefer hypotheses that:
1. Have greater explanatory breadth (have the most evidence) 2. Have greater simplicity (require fewer additional hypotheses or assumptions that account for the full range of evidence 3. Can be explained by other information 4. Is more plausible than alternatives (comparative) |
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What are abnormal events according to Kahneman & Miller?
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Events that can easily be imagined otherwise - give rise to counterfactual thinking
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When are events most likely to give rise to counterfactual thinking?
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1. When they are easily imagined otherwise (close call)
2. When negative outcomes result from exceptional behavior compared to routine behavior 3. When events are under the control of the individual they are focusing on (ex. undoing actions of victim) 4. When they are the result of an action (versus inaction) |
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What is the relationship between regret and action/inaction?
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We feel more regret over actions in the short-term, but more regret over inactions in the long-term because:
1. We are unable to understand why we had failed to act 2. It is easier to determine and deal with the consequences of our actions, but inactions remain mysterious |
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What are potential functions of counterfactual thoughts?
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1. In thinking about how misfortunes may have been avoided, we identity causes and circumstances that led to the misfortune and become better prepared to deal with them in the future
2. Motivate change 3. Elevate mood when we imagine how things could have been worse |
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In Cohen's (1981) study, how were the participants' memories affected by their expectations?
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When participants were given prior information about the subject's occupation (waitress or librarian), they were better able to recall both stereotype-consistent and stereotype-inconsistent behaviors (although highest recall for both groups was stereotype-consistent behaviors)
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What did Hastie & Kumar (1979) find regarding memory and expectancy-incongruent information?
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Participants were better able to remember behaviors of subject that were inconsistent with their expectations (ex. remember subject made same mistake 3 times when expectation of intelligence)
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Under what 3 conditions do we remember expectancy-incongruent information better?
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1. When we are motivated to form an accurate impression
2. When we have sufficient cognitive resources 3. When information strongly violates our expectations |
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Under what 3 conditions do we remember expectancy-congruent information better?
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1. When we are not concerned with accuracy
2. When we are cognitively depleted 3. When the incongruent information only mildly violates our expectations |
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How are descriptions of past selves (ex. self at 16) presented by participants (Wilson & Ross, 2001)?
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1. We derogate our past selves to enhance our current self and give the illusion of self-improvement
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How did married couples rate their marital happiness over time?
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1. Couples rated their current happiness as well as how happy they were at the last testing point (longitudinal study)
2. Although self-reports of happiness decreased over time, couples remembered being less happy than they were now at the previous testing period |
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What is a flashbulb memory?
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A significant personal memory of how you learned of an event
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What did the Challenger explosion study find about the accuracy of flashbulb memories?
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Although we are highly confident in the accuracy of our flashbulb memories, they are still prone to error
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What is mood-congruent memory?
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Being better able to recall memories that are congruent with our current mood (ex. when I am happy I remember a happy memory)
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What happens to mood-congruent memory when we are in a negative mood?
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Memories are less mood-congruent - we are more motivated to be happy than to be consistent
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What is mood-dependent memory?
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Being better able to recall memories that were encoded in the same mood as one's current mood (ex. when I am happy I remember an event that occurred while I was happy in the past)
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Which is stronger, mood-congruent memory or mood-dependent memory?
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Mood-dependent memory. Participants had better recall of events encoded when in the same mood than they did for events that were congruent with mood; participants induced to positive moods at both testing times recalled the best
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What is hindsight bias?
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Exaggerating how much we could predict a currently known outcome prior to its occurence
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Why do we have hindsight bias?
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Simulation heuristic - once an event has occurred, it is difficult to imagine an alternative
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How are descriptions of past selves (ex. self at 16) presented by participants (Wilson & Ross, 2001)?
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1. We derogate our past selves to enhance our current self and give the illusion of self-improvement
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How did married couples rate their marital happiness over time?
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1. Couples rated their current happiness as well as how happy they were at the last testing point (longitudinal study)
2. Although self-reports of happiness decreased over time, couples remembered being less happy than they were now at the previous testing period |
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What is a flashbulb memory?
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A significant personal memory of how you learned of an event
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What did the Challenger explosion study find about the accuracy of flashbulb memories?
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Although we are highly confident in the accuracy of our flashbulb memories, they are still prone to error
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What is mood-congruent memory?
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Being better able to recall memories that are congruent with our current mood (ex. when I am happy I remember a happy memory)
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What happens to mood-congruent memory when we are in a negative mood?
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Memories are less mood-congruent - we are more motivated to be happy than to be consistent
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What is mood-dependent memory?
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Being better able to recall memories that were encoded in the same mood as one's current mood (ex. when I am happy I remember an event that occurred while I was happy in the past)
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Which is stronger, mood-congruent memory or mood-dependent memory?
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Mood-dependent memory. Participants had better recall of events encoded when in the same mood than they did for events that were congruent with mood; participants induced to positive moods at both testing times recalled the best
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What is hindsight bias?
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Exaggerating how much we could predict a currently known outcome prior to its occurence
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Why do we have hindsight bias?
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Simulation heuristic - once an event has occurred, it is difficult to imagine an alternative
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What did Sanna & Schwarz' (2003) election study find about hindsight bias?
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1. Participants asked to predict election results before election, then asked after the election to recall predictions
2. Participants predicted results that were similar to actual election results, but not to original predictions |
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What did Sanna & Schwarz (2003) find about the role of the simulation heuristic in hindsight bias?
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1. 1/2 Participants were asked to list 12 events that could have changed election result (difficult condition) - because difficult, still showed hindsight bias
2. 1/2 participants asked to list 12 events that could have changed the election, but are told that the task is difficult and can only be completed by experts; attribution of difficulty to the fact they are not experts instead of simulation heuristic, therefore no hindsight bias |
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Why is motivation an inadequate explanation for hindsight bias?
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1. No evidence
2. We are not motivated to predict events that are irrelevant to us (ex. election results), but we still show hindsight bias 3. If we are motivated to think that we made the right choice, we should not engage in hindsight bias for our mistakes (ex. I knew I should have folded that hand!) |
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What did Cook et al. (2009) discover about false memories?
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1. An activity that induces participants to pick the wrong person affects the recognition of the right person (ex. photo lineup)
2. Mere exposure without choosing also impairs final memory performance |
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What are the 2 memory paradigms?
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1. Misinformation:
Event -> Past-Event Info -> Test 2. Rich False Memory: No Event -> Suggestion About Event (that has not occurred) -> Test |
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What effect did SERE survival training have on soldiers' cortisol levels?
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Highest levels of cortisol, even compared with people undergoing major surgery
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What effect did misinformation have on the SERE soldiers' recognition of their interrogator?
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1. Experimental group presented with photo of foil, then asked to identify interrogator from group of photos (actual interrogator photo not present)
2. 91% of experimental group identified the interrogator in the photos, and 84% of them picked foil 3. Of control group (no misinformation), 53% made false IDs, 15% of them the foil |
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What did Hyman et al. (1995) find about false memories?
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1. Participants were asked about an event that did not occur (accident at family wedding)
2. 25% of participants "remembered" this event 3. Explanation: visualization of an event makes it more memorable (AH) |
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What did Braun et al. (2002) find about false memories?
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1. Participants were asked to visualize impossible event (Bugs Bunny in Disneyland)
2. Although impossible, visualization made it memorable and therefore some participants claimed to have remembered it |
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Why might repressed memories of child sexual abuse that arise in therapy be suspect?
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May be false memories implanted by therapist through guided imagery techniques, hypnosis
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According to Geraerts et al. (2008), is it possible for false memories to affect eating habits?
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1. Participants given false feedback ("you felt ill after eating egg salad")
2. 39% of participants believed false feedback, and subsequently had a lower preference for egg salad than non-believers and control group |
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What is the explanation for the effect in the Geraerts et al. (2008) study where the nonbelievers of the false feedback still ate less egg salad than controls?
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Although false feedback was not believed, nonbelievers still imagined getting sick from eating egg salad
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What are 2 reasons why expectancy-congruent information is more memorable?
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1. We pay greater attention to it
2. It is more strongly related to our existing beliefs |
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What are reasons why expectancy-incongruent information is more memorable?
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1. Events that violate our expectancies capture our attention
2. We may work hard to reconcile incongruent events with our expectancies 3. Cognitive structures group and impose meaning on inconsistent behaviors |
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How do goals influence memory?
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The goal of forming an impression of another can lead you to pay more attention to info about that person and invest greater effort in making sense of that info through organization
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Why might flashbulb memories be better recalled?
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1. Emotional significance - stress hormones released contribute to memorability
2. People work hard to make sense of shocking events and the circumstances that surround them 3. Private and public rehearsals of events and circumstances |
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What is the interview illusion?
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People's mistaken belief in their ability to predict, based on a brief conversation with someone, how they will evaluate this person in the future
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How might theories of stability and change affect our memories of our past selves?
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1. When we expect stability, we may exaggerate the similarity between our past and present selves
2. When we expect change, we may exaggerate the difference between our past and present selves |
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What are 2 explanations for the hindsight bias?
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1. Preceding events take on new meaning and importance as they are made to cohere with the known outcome
2. It is difficult to imagine how things could have happened differently (simulation heuristic) |
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How might goals bias our recollections?
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Goals lead us to pose one-sided questions and engage in the positive test strategy
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What are 6 factors that distinguish memories of actual events from imagined events?
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1. Temporal and spatial attributes
2. Sensory attributes 3. Detailed and specific information 4. Emotional information 5. Supporting memories 6. Corroboration by others |
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When are we more likely to make source errors (misattribute one person's statements to another)?
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If the two belong to the same social group
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What is the sleeper effect? Why does it occur?
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1. A phenomenon in which the attitude change provoked by a discredited communication is greater after a delay than it is immediately
2. Occurs due to a dissociation between the message and the information that discredited it, that is, due to a failure at source monitoring |
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What is hot cognition?
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Those mental processes that are driven by our desires and feelings
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What are 3 types of studies that demonstrate the role of motivation in judgment?
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1. Outcome dependency
2. Cognitive dissonance 3. Self-affirmation |
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What is outcome dependency?
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Changing opinions of a person or event if one is dependent on them
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In Kunda & Klein's study, how did motivation affect participants' ratings of another participant's knowledge of American history?
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1. In control condition, Ps rated knowledge of other high
2. In partner condition, Ps rated knowledge of other high 3. In opponent condition, partner derogated knowledge of other |
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What is cognitive dissonance?
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Unpleasant tension when attitudes, beliefs, and behavior conflict; reduced through changing attitude/beliefs to fit behavior
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What conditions must be present in order for people to change their attitudes/beliefs to fit their behavior due to cognitive dissonance?
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1. Must be a condition of high choice
2. Must be arousal 3. Must attribute arousal to cognitive dissonance |
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What is Bem's Self-Perception Theory?
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Posits that we infer our attitude from our behavior (purely cognitive)
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What is problematic about Bem's Self-Perception theory?
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Cannot explain why a placebo would affect attitude change in Zanna and Cooper's (1974) study
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What is the sleeper effect? Why does it occur?
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1. A phenomenon in which the attitude change provoked by a discredited communication is greater after a delay than it is immediately
2. Occurs due to a dissociation between the message and the information that discredited it, that is, due to a failure at source monitoring |
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How can cognitive dissonance affect our perception of the environment?
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Motivated perception of environment - in Balcertis & Dunning's studies, participants in the high choice condition underestimated the distance/slope across campus/uphill compared to the low choice and control groups
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What is hot cognition?
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Those mental processes that are driven by our desires and feelings
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What are 3 types of studies that demonstrate the role of motivation in judgment?
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1. Outcome dependency
2. Cognitive dissonance 3. Self-affirmation |
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What is outcome dependency?
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Changing opinions of a person or event if one is dependent on them
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In Kunda & Klein's study, how did motivation affect participants' ratings of another participant's knowledge of American history?
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1. In control condition, Ps rated knowledge of other high
2. In partner condition, Ps rated knowledge of other high 3. In opponent condition, partner derogated knowledge of other |
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What is cognitive dissonance?
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Unpleasant tension when attitudes, beliefs, and behavior conflict; reduced through changing attitude/beliefs to fit behavior
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What conditions must be present in order for people to change their attitudes/beliefs to fit their behavior due to cognitive dissonance?
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1. Must be a condition of high choice
2. Must be arousal 3. Must attribute arousal to cognitive dissonance |
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What is Bem's Self-Perception Theory?
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Posits that we infer our attitude from our behavior (purely cognitive)
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What is problematic about Bem's Self-Perception theory?
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Cannot explain why a placebo would affect attitude change in Zanna and Cooper's (1974) study
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How can cognitive dissonance affect our perception of the environment?
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Motivated perception of environment - in Balcertis & Dunning's studies, participants in the high choice condition underestimated the distance/slope across campus/uphill compared to the low choice and control groups
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What is the sleeper effect? Why does it occur?
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1. A phenomenon in which the attitude change provoked by a discredited communication is greater after a delay than it is immediately
2. Occurs due to a dissociation between the message and the information that discredited it, that is, due to a failure at source monitoring |
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What is hot cognition?
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Those mental processes that are driven by our desires and feelings
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What are 3 types of studies that demonstrate the role of motivation in judgment?
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1. Outcome dependency
2. Cognitive dissonance 3. Self-affirmation |
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What is outcome dependency?
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Changing opinions of a person or event if one is dependent on them
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In Kunda & Klein's study, how did motivation affect participants' ratings of another participant's knowledge of American history?
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1. In control condition, Ps rated knowledge of other high
2. In partner condition, Ps rated knowledge of other high 3. In opponent condition, partner derogated knowledge of other |
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What is cognitive dissonance?
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Unpleasant tension when attitudes, beliefs, and behavior conflict; reduced through changing attitude/beliefs to fit behavior
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What conditions must be present in order for people to change their attitudes/beliefs to fit their behavior due to cognitive dissonance?
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1. Must be a condition of high choice
2. Must be arousal 3. Must attribute arousal to cognitive dissonance |
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What is Bem's Self-Perception Theory?
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Posits that we infer our attitude from our behavior (purely cognitive)
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What is problematic about Bem's Self-Perception theory?
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Cannot explain why a placebo would affect attitude change in Zanna and Cooper's (1974) study
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How can cognitive dissonance affect our perception of the environment?
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Motivated perception of environment - in Balcertis & Dunning's studies, participants in the high choice condition underestimated the distance/slope across campus/uphill compared to the low choice and control groups
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What is self-affirmation?
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Thinking of a value or characteristic that is important to us
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How did Claude Steele revise cognitive dissonance theory?
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Proposed that we change our inconsistent attitude/belief because we don't want to feel foolish
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How can self-affirmation reduce dissonance?
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We think about a behavior or characteristic that we're proud of to avoid arousal caused by dissonance
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When counter-attitudinal information makes us feel foolish, what are 2 ways we can reduce this feeling?
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1. Change attitude
2. Think of valued aspect of self (self-affirmation) |
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Why does self-affirmation conflict with self-perception theory?
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If self perception theory is correct, we should infer our attitudes from our behavior regardless of whether we self-affirm, but this is not the case
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How did self-affirmation affect the racial achievement gap in Cohen et al.'s study?
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1. Global self-integrity threatened by negative stereotypes.
2. Threat produces arousal. 3. Self-affirmation improved performance for all students, especially minority students (African American achievement gap reduced by 40%) |
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What is constrained motivation?
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When motivation to see self in a certain way is constrained by reality
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What did Santioso, Kunda & Fong find about constrained motivation?
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1. Highly extraverted or introverted people will adjust their self-ratings of extraversion or introversion according to motivation (ex. extraversion predicts success)
2. These adjustments will only be made in accordance with reality constraints - regardless of conditions, extraverted participants still rated themselves as more extraverted than introverted participants |
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How do people evaluate evidence for their desired beliefs? Undesired beliefs?
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Scientific evidence was evaluated positively when it supported Ps desired conclusion, but evaluated negatively when it contradicted desired conclusion
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Why might accuracy goals lead us to incorrect judgments?
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1. If you don't know how to evaluate a problem, trying harder won't help to solve it
2. More effort makes you rely on heuristics more |
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How did participants in Pelham and Neter's study vary in error rates depending on accuracy goals?
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1. Ps had low error rates for easy problem regardless of accuracy goals
2. Ps with accuracy goals made more errors with hard problem than those with accuracy goals because they relied more on the representativeness heuristic |
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What is deliberative mindset?
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1. Frame of mind when trying to make a decision (should I?)
2. Leads us to consider relevant information in a balanced manner 3. Can give rise to accuracy goals |
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What is implemental mindset?
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1. Frame of mind when we have already made a decision
2. Leads us to focus on thoughts and actions necessary to achieve the outcome 3. Gives rise to directional goals - motivated to believe in our ability to bring about the desired outcome |
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What tends to happen when we are in a deliberative mindset?
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1. Carries over to unrelated tasks
2. Continue having accuracy goals 3. See self more objectively 4. Have less positive illusions |
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What tends to happen when we are in a deliberative mindset?
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1. Carries over to unrelated tasks
2. Continue having directional goals 3. See self more positively 4. More positive illusions |
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What effect does mindset have on mood? Assessment of risk? Self-esteem? Optimism?
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1. Mood: Lower for DL, higher for IM
2. Risk Assessment: Equal for control and DL, high for IM 3. Self-esteem: High for control and IM, slightly lower for DL 4. Optimism: DL slightly less than IM, both lower than control |
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What are closure goals?
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Arriving at any conclusion with little time and effort - use of heuristics
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What are directional goals?
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Goal of arriving at desirable conclusion
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When are we motivated to obtain quick closure?
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1. Under time pressure
2. If task is tedious |
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When might we be motivated to avoid closure?
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When motivated to be accurate (due to fear of mistakes, criticism) - decreases bias
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What is mood-congruent judgement?
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Making judgments that are congruent with our current mood (ex. I am grumpy, therefore I don't like my friend)
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How might we use moods as a direct source of information about our judgments?
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When we are unaware of the actual source of a mood, we may mistakenly attribute it to the object of judgment (I feel angry because I'm angry at my friend). As a result, our judgments will be congruent with our moods.
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Why might the impact of moon on judgment be due to its informational value rather than mood-congruent memory?
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1. Reminding people to a source of mood causes them to attribute their moods to this factor, thus discounting its relevance to other judgments.
2. If mood-congruent, this effect would not happen. |
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Why are we more likely to use elaborate, systematic processing when we are in bad moods?
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1. Bad mood may inform us we have a problem we should be dealing with, so we mobilize our cognitive reasoning to solve the problem and these processes become generalized
2. Bad moods are unpleasant, so we through ourselves into distracting tasks to get ourselves out of bad mood |
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Why are we more likely to use heuristics and simplified processing when in good moods?
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1. Good mood may inform us that all is fine and there is little need for careful evaluation of our circumstances
2. Because good moods are pleasant, we wish to extend them through avoiding any task (hard thinking) that may disrupt mood 3. Dwelling on happy thoughts may leave less cognitive capacity for other judgment tasks, and so provoke cursory, heuristic processing |
