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93 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What are the four requirements for a process to be automatic?
1. Outside awareness
2. Uncontrollable
3. Unintentional
4. Highly efficient/without effort
What is a vigilance task?
Words are flashed for 100ms followed by mask

In Bargh & Pietromonaco, 0%, 20% or 80% of words flashed related to hostility
How did the subliminal priming of words related to hostility affect participants' ratings of Donald's hostility in Bargh & Pietromonaco's study?
Participants exposed to more words related to hostility rated Donald as more hostile
In Bargh et al.'s study, how did the subliminal presentation of African American faces affect the participants' hostility?
Participants were more hostile when exposed to black faces because the black faces unconsciously triggered thoughts of hostility
Under what conditions does subliminal advertising work?
1. When motivated to achieve goal
2. When subliminally primed to satisfy the goal
In Straham, Spencer & Zanna's study, how did subliminally primed thirst affect participants' drinking habits?
Participants drank more when thirsty (motivated to satisfy thirst) and primed than all other conditions
What are the 2 processes in goal-inconsistent automaticity?
1. Automatic detection-monitoring system
2. Intentional (controlled) search for distractors
Why does thought suppression have ironic effects?
Because we only engage in automatic-detection monitoring (think of what we are trying not to think of), without engaging in an intentional search for distractors
What did Wegner & Erber find about ironic processes and time pressure?
Participants asked to concentrate (i.e. think of house) made more errors when not under time pressure

Participants asked to suppress (i.e. not think of house) made more errors under time pressure
When are we more likely to successfully suppress stereotypes?
When we can engage in controlled processes (i.e. not distracted, have plenty of time to come up with responses)
Why does Bargh argue against free will?
1. Situations lead to goals, which lead to actions
2. Occurs automatically, outside of awareness
3. Similar to stimulus-response behaviorism
What did Pronin, Wegner et al. find about conscious will?
1. Ps exposed to obnoxious confederate, then asked to poke voodoo doll. When confederate complained of headache, Ps felt responsible.
2. Therefore, just because thought precedes action does not mean conscious will; illusion.
What is the difference between stereotype activation and application?
1. Activation: whether thinking about stereotype in the first place
2. Application: extent to which we use a stereotype to form an impression of someone
What are the 3 main methods used to measure stereotype activation?
1. Rate ambiguous behavior
2. Word-fragment completion
3. Lexical decision task (see words related to stereotype and measure response time)
What are the 2 main methods used to measure stereotype application?
1. Impression of someone
2. Behavior towards someone
What did Devine argue about stereotype activation?
1. Automatic and inevitable
2. Regardless of prejudice level
3. Outside of awareness
What did Devine argue about stereotype application?
Application is prevented only when we are motivated and aware of activation
How did Ps in Devine's study rate Donald's ambiguous behavior when primed with 80% of stereotype-related words?
High-prime group rated Donald as more aggressive-hostile regardless of prejudice
According to Devine, how do participants low in prejudice and high in prejudice differ in applying stereotypes?
When conscious of stereotype activation, low prejudice participants refrain from applying stereotypes
How do goals influence our activation and application of stereotypes?
Depending on goals, we pick and choose which stereotypes to activate and which to inhibit
How did Sinclair and Kunda test the relationship between goals and stereotype application?
1. Participants given positive or negative evaluation from black or white doctor
2. When positive feedback, Ps inhibited black stereotype and activated doctor stereotype
3. When negative feedback, Ps activated black stereotype and inhibited doctor stereotype
4. Regardless of feedback, white doctor was perceived similarly because credibility never questioned
What are comprehension goals?
Goals to understand and explain events and behaviors from coherent impressions of others

When motivated to for quick impressions, activate stereotypes; when motivated to be accurate, stereotypes not activated
How can the motivated to avoid prejudice affect our application of stereotypes?
Via self-focus (attending to internal standards)
In Macrae et al.'s study, how did self-focus influence the application of stereotypes?
Those in the low self-focus condition applied the stereotype more than those in the high self-focus condition
According to Macrae et al., what happens to stereotypes after suppression?
After they are suppressed, they become hyperaccessible because we are no longer actively searching for distracters
What four goals does stereotype application and activation depend on?
1. Self-enhancement goals
2. Comprehension goals
3. Motivation to avoid prejudice
4. System justification
What is system justification theory?
Accepting and defending systems in order to maintain belief in a just world
What are complementary stereotypes?
Illusions of equality supported by positive stereotypes about low status groups and negative stereotypes about high status groups
What are 3 reasons why stereotypes would increase support for the system among women?
1. Well-suited for gender roles
2. "Sugarcoating" low status
3. Balance out men's strengths and weaknesses
NT people: The Apostles (name them)
Mt. 10; Mk. 3
They were appointed and designated Apostles by Jesus that they might be with him and that he might send them out to preach and drive out demons (Mk. 3:14-15). They became his witnesses and according to church tradition, all were martyred except for John. They provided leadership in the early church by carrying out ministry of prayer and the word.
Simon (Peter), Andrew (brother of Simon), James (Son of Zebedee), John (brother of James), Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew (the tax collector), James (Son of Alphaeus), Thaddaeus, Simon (the Zealot), and Judas Iscariot (who betrayed Jesus), later replaced by Matthias (Acts 1).
How do complementary stereotypes justify status differences between other groups?
Low-status groups are perceived to have more communal traits (ex. happy, honest) than high-status groups
What are complementary stereotypes of the poor?
Rich - happy and dishonest
Poor - happy and honest

Suggests equal distribution of benefits and burdens
How do complementary stereotypes increase system justification?
Complementary stereotypes (ex. poor but happy, rich but unhappy) increases satisfaction with system
When will we enhance or derogate victims?
If causal link between trait and outcome, non-complementary stereotypes (ex. blame victims, praise winners)

If no causal link between trait and outcome, non-complementary stereotype (romanticize victims, derogate winners)
How are people with power perceived under system threat?
When no system threat, perceived as less intelligent (causal relevance low), but more happy (no causal relevance high)

When system threat, perceived as more intelligent (causal relevance high), but less happy (no causal relevance low)
How are obese people perceived under system threat?
When no system threat, perceived as less lazy (casual relevance low), but more social (no causal relevance high)

When system threat, perceived as more lazy (high causal relevance),
What are 2 types of rationalizing likely outcomes?
1. "Sour grapes" rationalization - preferred; as outcome becomes less likely, perceived as less desirable
2. "Sweet lemon" rationalization - non-preferred; as outcomes more and more likely, perceived as more desirable
According to Kay et al.'s study on presidency desirability, how does perceived likelihood of an outcome affect its desirability?
When an originally unfavorable outcome is perceived as more likely, people judge it as more desirable (sweet lemon)

When an originally favorable outcome is perceived as less likely, people judge it as less desirable (sour grapes)
What are the 2 means of control (order and structure), according to Kay et al.'s compensatory control model?
1. Personal control
2. External systems of control

Substitutable
In Kay et al., how did the level of personal control and the perceived benevolence of external control affect participants' endorsement of the system?
When Ps in no personal control condition perceived low benevolence, were less resistant to change

When Ps in no personal control condition perceived high benevolence, were highly resistant to change

When Ps in personal control condition, more resistant to change when perceived low benevolence.

When Ps in personal control condition, low resistance to change when personal benevolence high

When personal control, endorse system more regardless of perceived benevolence
According to Kay et al.'s compensatory control model, does threatening system increase personal control?
Yes, when the system was threatened (ineffective health system), Ps perceived personal control (over presence of blue dot)

When system was not threatened (effective health system), Ps perceived less personal control (over blue dot)
In Kay et al., how does personal control affect perceptions of God as controller or creator?
When personal control, God as creator endorsed more and God as controller endorsed less

When no personal control, equal endorsement of God as creator, high endorsement of God as controller
How might treatment undermine a stereotyped person's ability to perform competently?
An activated stereotype may affect our behavior toward stereotyped individuals, and this may affect their reactions to us (ex. sitting far from homosexual, physical distance between Black job applicant)
How can stereotype activation be disrupted?
When under cognitive load, activation of stereotypes is undermined (but when attempting to suppress under cognitive load, not effective)
How might failure experiences effect our activation of stereotypes?
A recent failure experience along with a reminder of a stereotyped group may give rise to an automatic activation of the negative stereotype of this group, regardless of cognitive load
When exposed to a person who belongs to more than one stereotyped group, how do we decide which stereotype to apply and which to inhibit?
We suppress the less dominant of he two applicable stereotypes in order to avoid distraction and interference
How does individuating information effect stereotype application?
When we are presented with individuating information, we tend to rely on that above the stereotype (base-rate), but stereotypes may influence impressions in other ways
How does behavior ambiguity influence stereotype application?
When behavior is unambiguous, stereotypes do not have impact on their interpretation

When behavior is ambiguous, we use stereotypes to form our impressions
Even if we rely on individuating information rather than stereotypes, why might stereotypes be used to predict behavior?
Because behavioral predictions can be influenced by other aspects of the stereotypes that have not been undercut by the person's behavior (ex. Even if John, the construction worker, did not attack someone who insulted him, he is more likely to get in a brawl than John the accountant because of his working class status)
What is the contact hypothesis?
Holds that social contact between members of majority and minority groups will reduce prejudice
What are characteristics of independent cultures?
1. Emphasize self as individual
2. Set apart from others by focusing on unique talents and achievements
3. Abilities and opinions are fixed and stable across situations
What are characteristics of interdependent cultures?
1. See self as interdependent, part of a network of social relationships
2. Maximize achievement because of obligation to family and social group
3. Adjust behavior to what is perceived to be the thoughts, feelings and actions of others in the relationship; emphasize blending in
4. Don't define self using attributes because self depends on social context
5. Ability and opinions are situation specific and unstable
Why do self-perceptions differ between Asian and Western cultures?
Because of differences in how situations are perceived (success versus failure; Japanese more self-criticism, Americans more self-enhancement)
Describe Kitayama et al.'s study on American vs. Japanese differences in self-perceptions and situations?
1. Japanese and American students asked to list success or failure situations made in Japan or America
2. Ps in 3 conditions (Japanese in Japan, Japanese in US, Americans in US) imagine self in success/failure situations and asked how relevant the situations were to their self-esteem, and to what extent situations were relevant to self-esteem
3. For Japanese, self-esteem decreased most for situations made in Japan, and decreased moderately for situations made in America
4. For Japanese Americans, self-esteem decreased for situations made in Japan, but moderately increased for situations made in America
5. For Americans, moderate self-esteem increase for situations made in Japan, and great self-esteem increase for situations made in US
What did Kitayama et al.'s study conclude?
Both cultural differences in the self AND cultural differences in situations affect self esteem
What is a spread of alternatives?
Increase in desirability of chosen alternative and decrease in desirability of rejected one
What did Hoshino-Brown et al. argue about cognitive dissonance in interdependent and independent cultures?
1. Easterners also experience cognitive dissonance, but what triggers dissonance is not the same as Westerners
2. Westerners are motivated to justify the choices they make for themselves, while Easterners are motivated to be good group members and justify the choices they make for others.
3. Therefore, Easterners should experience dissonance for choices for others, not the self
What did Hoshino-Brown et al. find about cognitive dissonance in interdependent and independent cultures?
1. Asian and Eastern European Canadians ratings of dissonance when making choice for friend or self
2. Asians experienced greater dissonance when making choice for friend, Eastern Europeans when making choice for self
According to Miyamoto et al., how does culture influence the perception of the environment?
1. Eastern cultures focus on background, while Western cultures focus on focal object because of differences in physical environment
2. Japanese environments are more ambiguous
What is change blindness?
Inability to detect changes in background
How do Japanese and Americans differ in change blindness?
Japanese less change blindness (better at detecting changes in background)

Both Japanese and Americans better when Japanese scenes were primed than when American scenes were primed
How might ostracism be evolutionarily adaptive, according to Kipling Williams?
Ostracism (ostracizing and being sensitive to ostracism) maintains health of group
According to Williams, what 4 fundamental needs does ostracism threaten?
1. Sense of belonging
2. Self-esteem
3. Sense of control
4. Meaningful existence
In Williams, Cheung and Choi, how did ostracism (inclusion in cyberball) affect participants' 4 fundamental needs?
Highly threatened self-esteem and threat to belonging

Neutral threat to control and existence
Are we still affected when ostracized by a despised group?
Yes, in Gonsalkorale & Williams, still negatively affected (nearly equally or equally) when ostracized by a despised/rival outgroup

Also worse mood, even when ostracized by outgroup
What brain areas are activated or inhibited when we are ostracized?
1. Anterior cingulate cortex - activated when ostracism, correlated with self-reported distress
2. Right ventral prefrontal cortex - more activated (to inhibit pain) during ostracism, negatively correlated with distress and ACC activation
In Williams et al., how did ostracism affect conformity? How might this be adaptive?
1. When ostracized (excluded from cyberball), Ps more likely to give incorrect answer because confederates gave same answer, regardless of whether ingroup, outgroup, or mixed

Reason: to restore sense of belonging
How does ostracism affect aggression?
In Twenge et al., when participants in ostracism condition, they delivered more noise intensity and duration to loser of new game

Conclusion: more aggressive when ostracized, even if not to source of ostracism
What is the reason Warburton, Williams & Cairns believe ostracism leads to aggression?
1. Ostracism threatens control
2. Aggression restores control
In Warburton, Williams, & Cairns, how did ostracism and control affect aggression?
When ostracized and low control, Ps were more aggressive (administered more hot sauce)

When ostracized and high control, Ps less aggressive (administered less hot sauce)

In no ostracism condition, control did not affect aggression
According to Warburton, Williams & Cairns, how should we prevent ostracism from leading to aggression?
Targets need to have sense of control over an important area of life
How do Westerners and Easterners differ in the richness of self-representation?
Westerns judge unfamiliar object as more similar to the familiar one than vice versa (ex. friend is more similar to me than I am to friend)

Opposite with Easterners
What are the 4 components of Adorno et al.'s Authoritarian Personality?
1. Antisemitism
2. Ethnocentrism
3. Political and economic conservatism
4. Fascism
What is integrative complexity?
Recognition and integration of multiple perspectives
How do political leanings relate to integrative complexity?
Moderate socialists highest, followed by moderate conservatives, then extreme socialists, then extreme conservatives
What are characteristics of the conservative right?
1. Tend to preserve what is established
2. Oppose change
3. Fear of change
4. Support hierarchical structure
5. See world as dangerous
6. See people as naturally bad
What are the 2 components of the relationship between motives and beliefs?
1. We are motivated to form and maintain beliefs
2. Beliefs satisfy psychological needs
How is political conservatism motivated social cognition?
Political beliefs are adopted because they satisfy psychological needs:
1. Directional motives: desire to reach a specific conclusion
2. Non-directional motives: desire to arrive at a belief or understanding independent of its content
What are the 3 components of the motives model?
1. Epistemic motives
2. Existential motives
3. Ideological motives
What are the 4 components of epistemic needs theories?
1. Intolerance of ambiguity
2. Ambiguity as a source of threat
3. Uncertainty avoidance
4. Need for cognitive closure
What are the 2 components of existential needs theories?
1. Regulatory focus theory: regulating experience to avoid pain
2. Terror management theory: when reminded of mortality, become more conservative
What are the 3 components of ideological needs theories?
1. Right wing authoritarianism
2. Social dominance orientation
3. System justification
What are implicit attitudes?
Favorable or unfavorable attitudes towards something or someone that one is unaware of
What is an implicit association test (IAT)?
Test to measure association between the category and attribute to discover implicit attitudes
What are the 2 bases of IAT associations?
1. Personal implicit attitudes
2. Extrapersonal associations
In the Police Officer's Dilemma, how did Ps differ in error rates when the targets were white or black?
For black targets, high error rates when holding object (ex. shot when holding neutral object). Low error rates for black targets with guns.
How was Ps visual processing affected when primed with black or white faces?
Ps took shorter time to identify crime-relevant image when primed with black faces than with white faces
When asked to judge the stereotypicality of black or white faces, how were Ps ratings of targets' criminality affected?
When face was considered more stereotypically black, target considered more criminal

When face considered more stereotypically white, considered less criminal
How did the subliminal exposure of black or white faces, followed by movies of apes and non-apes, affect participants' speed of frame detection for images of weapons?
Ps exposed to black faces and ape images fastest to identify image

Ps not exposed to faces but exposed to ape images next fastest to identity image

Suggests implicit association between blacks and apes
How did the rate of categorization differ when Ps were asked to categorize target words when black was associated with "ape" or "feline"?
When black associated with ape, Ps faster at categorizing target words
When primed with apes or big cats, how did Ps justify police beatings of black or white suspects?
Most justified - black suspects in ape prime
How did the black-ape association affect jurors' decisions in death-eligible cases?
Apelike metaphors associated with higher prevalence of death sentence
What is the Consortium for Police Leadership in Equity (CPLE)?
Collaborative relationship between law enforcement and researchers aiming to train and inform policy to guard against racism in police practice