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389 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
5 major trends in modern era of behavioural endocrinology
1. increase in quanitity of research

2. advances in correlational studies (different subjects, methods and things to investigate)

3. explication of mechanisms of hormonal action

4. atudying how hormonal control of behaviour is adaptive

5. convergence of disciplines
fields that contributed to behavioural neuroendocrinology during formative period (7)
physiological psychology, neuroendocrinology, neurophysiology, genetics, zoology, physiology, biology,
3 stages of hormones and behaviour
1) predisciplinary era 1845

2. formative era (discovery of secretin)

3. modern era (specialists, expansion)
h-index
ranks scientists based on # of times theyre cited / # of papers published
PLoS one
- free access, professional contributor articles. growing quickly

- doesnt judge the impact of a publication (cause thats subjective)
peer review criteria (4)
• Originality, Novelty
• Impact
• Accuracy
• Sound science
Problems with peer-review (3)
• Personality, Politics
• Coming to correct and accurate acceptions or
rejections
• how do you consider the impact, and the
originality?
coefficient of determination
measure of variability in DV explianed by the effect variable (factor).
Goals of the Scientific Approach (3)
–Measurement and description
–Understanding and prediction
–Application and control
research methods in psych (4)
experimnts, naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys
facilitated communication
the idea that autistic kids can express themselves with the help of an adult . was disproven
how to make research scientific (5)
- Precision.
• Skepticism.
• Reliance on empirical evidence.
• Willingness to make risky predictions.
• Openness.
precision
use theories to find hypotheses, then use operational definitions in hypothesis to test scientific questions
skepticism
• Scientists do not accept ideas on faith
or authority.
• Skepticism means treating
conclusions, both old and new with
caution.
principle of falsifiability
predictions must be (specific enough) to be able to be disconfirmed
conformation bias
–Tendency to look for or pay attention only to information
that confirms one’s own belief.
Prefrontal lobotomy
ineffective at treating mental illness cause it came with serious deficits, won a nobel prize
openness (2, what, how)
tell others where they
got there ideas, how they tested them and what the
results were.
• Peer review, publishing and replicating research gives
science a built in system of checks and balances
Karl Popper's critical rationalism (2)
1. a theory predicts what will and will not happen

2. falsifiability
reliability vs. validity
a measurement has to be consistent (reliable) and measure what it sets out to measure (valid)

- must be reliable to be valid, but not every reliable test is valid
random assignment vs. random selection
put people in control or experimental groups randomly vs select people from population randomly.
function of theories (2)
organize experimental results

give a basis for development of hypotheses
Confounds
difference between the experimental and control groups, other than the independent variable; makes independent variable effects uninterpretable
sources of confounds (3)
1) variables that arent randomly assigned

2) participant expectations (placebo)

3) expectations of the experimenter (experimenter bias)
heuristics
mental shortcuts that simplify reality to save energy
Hawthorne effect, how to minimize (2)
phenomenon in which
participants’ knowledge that they’re being studied
can affect their behaviour

covert observation, and having participants make observation
demand characteristics
cues that allow the participant to know the results that the researcher wants
types of probabilities (3)
alpha-error: what were the chances that you find
a result in your study which is not present in the
population? (false alarm)

• beta-error: what were the chances that you didn’t
find a significant effect in your study even if it was
present in your population? (miss)

• Power (1-beta): what were the chances to find a
significant effect given your sample size? (hit)
ethics of studying humans (5)
1) informed consent
2) freedom to withdraw at any time
3) minimize discomfort
4) keep data confidential
5) deception must be followed by debreifing
ethics of studying animals (5)
–To conduct basic research.

–To discover practical applications.

–To study issues that cannot be studies.
experimentally with human beings.

–To clarify theoretical questions.

–To improve human welfare.
meninges in PNS vs. CNS
- only has two layers (dura and pia mater)
vs.
- has three layers (arachnoid, dura and pia mater)
location of PAG, red nucleus and substantia nigra
midbrain
limbic system parts (9)
• Septal area
• Hypothalamus
• Fornix
• Cingulate gyrus
• Mammillary bodies
• Hippocampus
• Parahippocampal
gyrus
• Amygdala
• Olfactory bulb
control of ANS
- hypothalamus > midbrain tegmentum > ANS ganglia
absolute vs. relative refractory period
relative, you need more activation for it to cause AP,

absolute you cant no matter what
meningitis
infection of the pia mater
the elctrical synapse
made by gap junctions: transmembrane protiens join two membranes together, so that diffusion of the ions for that channel can occur from one cell to another
3 methods for NT deactivation
1. diffusion
2. deactivating enzymes
3. reuptake
serotonin, dopamine, ACh, NE (excitatory or inhibitory effects?)
inhibitory, excitatory, both, excitatory
tetanus toxin
blocks GABA receptor sites, muscles begin to spasm
3 communication systems in the body
nervous, endocrine, immune (uses cytokines to communicate)
horomones (5 basic qualifications)
- potent in small concentrations

- made in ductless glands

- transported by blood

- impact far away from synthesis

- have a regulatory (specific) effect on cell
paracrine function
hormones that act as NTs
autocrine function
hormones that impact the cells that release them
two chemical classes of hormones
1. proetin based (AA dn peptides)

2. steroid based
CRH/CRF (where, what)
- made in anterior PVN hypothal

- acts on pituitary (ACTH activation)
GnRH (where, what)
- made in preoptic area

- controls release of LH and FSH from pituitary

- could be multiple
GHRH
ventromedial and arcuate nucleus of hyp

- controls GH rlease from pituitary
TRH
- PVN and anterior PVN of hypothal

- stimulates cells in pit to release TSH
tropic factors
hormones that release other hormones
Dopamine (as a hormone)
- arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus
- inhibits prolactin release from pituitary
somatostatin (GH-IH)
PVN of hypothal

- inhibits GH and TSH
- inhibitory effects on insulin, glucagon and secretin
oxytocin and vasopressin
- made in supraoptic nuclei, lateral and superior PVN
- released in posterior pituitary

- vasopressin: antidiretic: regulates water balance, bP

- oxytocin: contractions, trust, parental behaviours
post pit. vs. ant pit
post: direct innervation from hypothal, hormones are not trophic factors

anterior: recieves hormones, releases hormones
acromegaly
uncontrolled release of GH.

- as an adult: bone thickness in face, hands and feet

- as a child: LEGS (get way taller)
HT-PT relationship (4)
• Hormones of the HT stimulate secretion of
hormones from the PT
• not one to one relationship (e.g., CRH - ACTH) amplification cascade
• not unidirectional (PT hormones affect HT)
• not only regulated by HT but also by
neurotransmitters
the pineal gland (4)
superior to 3rd ventricle

- directly controlled by SCN
- makes melatonin
- involved with co-ordinating sleep/wake cycle
hormones act like a muscle system for ___________
emotion, learning, memory, behaviours
organizational effects
long term impact of a hormone in early development critical period
T4 vs. T3
20:1 production ration

- much of T4 becomes T3 later tho (40%)

- both made from iodine
globulins
transport hormones around the blood in an inactive state
thyroid gland hormones functions
body metabolism regulation and CNS development
hypothyroidism vs. hyperthyroidism
droopy eyes, goiter (swelling, bloating in neck), lagging of sexual maturation

vs. too much sweating
parathyroid hormone
regulates calcium
cretinism
stunted physical and mental growth cause of hypothyroidism that is genetic
failing thyroid is associated with (4)
increased fatigue, facial puffiness, skin discolourations, skin dryness
endocrine pancreas (4 hormones)
- brain is independent of glucose regulation by pancreas

- hormones: insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide
diabetes mellitus
b cells in islets of langerhans produce insulin

- type 1: no insulin production

type 2: little/insufficient production, insulin resistance
adrenal cortex vs. medulla
cortex: steroid hormones: Cortisol, Aldosterone, Androgens, Estrogens

- medulla: AA & peptide: Adrenaline, Noradrenaline, Dopamine, Enkephalins
hyooactivity vs. hyperactivity of adrenal glands
the
• hypoactivity is linked to weakness, fatigue, nausea, weight loss, low blood
pressure

• hyperactivity is linked to obesity, high blood pressure
_____ are responsible for secondary sexual characteristics
gonads
ovaries
- cortical layer produces est, progest, and androgens

-LH buildup causes egg release

- if egg is not fertilized, menses
stages of menstrual cycle (3)
menses (all hormone levels fall)

follicular phase (maturing of follicles, estrogen)

luteal phase (ruptured follicle becomes corpus luteum)
testes (4)
- in the scrotum: for protection and temp maintenence

-Leydig cells produce hormones (testosterone)

- test, DHT, estrogen, DHEA, progest, androstendione

- regulates male sexual behaviour, energy, production of RBCs and sperm
neurosteroids
progesterone and DHEA
what type of hormon is a prostaglandin?
lipid
prohormone examples, why
testostrone: for DHT and estradiol

why?
1. stabilize structure during synth
2. easier to transport and move
3. storage reserve for horomones (quicker than transcription)
4. regulate amount of hormones released
5. more resistant to degredation
mediated (3) vs. direct hormone action (4)
mediated:
- for polypeptide, AA, and prostaglandins
- use receptors followed by 2nd messengers
- impact cell metabolism and gene expression

direct:
- thyroid and steroid hormones
- enter cells and bind to intracellular receptors
- go into nucleus, induce gene expression
- cause protein synth at the ER
AA derived hormones are derivatives of _____ and ______
tyrosine and tryptophan
releasing factor horomones are usually _______ type
peptide
from cholestrol, you can make glucocorticoids, sex steroids, and mineralocorticoids. which one of those synthesis is anabolic?
cholestrol to sex steroids (estrogrens, progestagens)
secretory granule cells
transport vesicles from golgi apparatus, hold non-steroid hormones before release
procpiomelanocortin
a prohormone: (proteins/RNA that will be a hormone when cleaved)

this one can be cleaved into met enkephalin, ACTH, gamma-MSH,
synthesis of steroid hormones (2)
cholestrol from blood, goes to mitochondria, turned into pregnenolone, pregnenolone > progesterone

progestrone is sent to SER, acts as a hormone and as prohormone for the other steroid hormones
deoxycortisol is the precursor for
cortisol
androsterone (DHEA) is the direct precursor to
testosterone
deoxycorticosterone > _________ > aldosterone
corticosterone
the 3 circumcentricular organs (what do they do?)
exceptions to the BBB. allow the brain to detect levels of hormone fluctuating in the blood.

median eminence

pineal gland

pituitary gland
aromatase
converts tstosterone into estrogen
test and est receptors in the brain (where? 3)
hypothalamus, amygdala, pituitary gland.
estrogen and the aging brain
estrogen is neuro-protective (prevents aging).
test recptors in the brain (where, why, what they bind)
• located in the septum, amygdala,
hippocampus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland

• regulates male sexual behavior, emotion,
motivation, spatial ability

• receptors also bind to dihydrotestosterone
adrenal hormone receptors in the brain (2)
type 1: mineralcorticoid (high affinity for steroid hormones, stimulates further release, in amygdala and hippcampus)

type 2: glucocorticoid (low affinity for steroid hormones, inhibits release, found throughout brain)
thyroid hormone receptors in the brain (2)
- neuromodulators of the andrenergic system

- high density in cerebllum, limbic system, brain stem but everyhwere in the brain
hormones and hippocampus (2)
- sensitive to fluctuating levels of gonadal and adrenal steroids

ex: - increase in synaptic density and dendritic spines during follicular phase of menstrual cycle
ablation & replacement (describe, example)
removal of hormone source, observe effects, reimplant, see if the effects of removal are reversed.

ex: berthold's experiment in Roosters (1849) saw that testes are what made secondary sex characteristics in roosters
bioassay (def, examples 3)
the test of the effects of a hormone on the
morphology of a living being, or part of a
living being

ex: weight of adrenal glands, size of rooster's comb, size of deer's antlers, change in non-endocrine issue (like vagina)
behavioural biassays (2)
• the test of the effects of a hormone on the
behavior of a living being, or part of a living
being

quantitative or qualitiative recording
radioimmunoassay (process)
unlablled hormone vs. labed and known quantity of hormone - compete for receptors.

unknown: initial level of hormone

known: amount of receptor and labeled hormone

**remove unbound products, then you check the levels of labelled hormone that is bound

- can figure out the unlabelled hormone using the standard curve (its proportional)
standard curve
used to determine the amount of unlabelled hormone in a given sample.

percentage labelled hormone/unlabelled hormone
possible confounds for radioimmunoassays (2):
1. if the receptor is not specific for a hormone, it can bind other 3rd party hormones that are not of interest

2. corss-reactivity between horomones to produce new hromones in the mixture

3. if affinity between ligand and hormone is weak

4. if other competitors are in the sample
autoradiography (3)
- to find receptor locations in tissue samples

- radiolabel a hormone and exposed the unstained tissue to photorgrpahic film

- develop the film
cannulation
connecting the blood of two animals to see impact of hormones in causing behaviour
transgenic vs. knockout mice
inserted vs. removed gene
brain imaging for hormone measurement, example
stress increases DA to ventral striatum if you had early life struggles.
levels of analysis for behaviors (4)
proximal questions
1. immediate causation

2. development

ultimate questions
3. evolution

4. adaptive function
rabbit pregnancy test
human female urine injected into rabbits, if they formed corpus lutea, then the women being tested were pregnant
immunocytochemistry
labelled antibodies to a hormone can be put onto a tissue and used to locate where the hormones are
blot tests (3)
-cells are destroyed

-electrophoresis separated the molecules based on weight

- western blot: uses antibodies for protein hormones on electrophoresis gel

- southern: DNA, northern: RNA
in situ hybridization
to find mRNA molecules in a tissue coding for a specific protein (used cDNA to bind it complementarily). better specificity than blotting
leptin/ob gene
regulates eating. when kncoked out, creates obese mice.
gene arrays (mircoarrays)
use a bunch of oligonucleotides affixed to a plate in order to "catch" mRNA as they are passed through the plate.

**identify levels of various mRNAs in a sample
SRY gene
on the Y chromosome, in humans, it transcribes TDF which tells the gonads to differentiate into testes
reproductive cost
having to carry the baby
parthenogenesis
sex where genetically identical offspring develop into exactly genetically identical as their mothers
female spotted hyenas
have a dominant sex role compared to male hyenas (defend territory, get submissive responses from males, get first access to food
sexual selection ______ sexual dimorphisms
enhances
humans are what type of sexual creatures?
sexually dimorphic and polygynous
the types of sex (5)
chromosomal, gonadal, hormonal, morphological and behavioural
hormonal sex differences
higher androgens (men), higher estrogens (women)
gonads first exist at what stage of development? begin to differentiate when?
6 weeks, 7 weeks
gonadal development males (3)
testes make MIS (mullerian inhibiting substance), mulluerian ducts disappear by week 10,

testosterone from testes makes wolffian ducts into spermatic ducts by week 12.

testes decscend into scrotum by birth
gonadal developemnt females (2)
wolffian ducts disappear by week 10 (no testosterone).

mullerian ducts become uterus, vagina and uterine tubes by week 20
sexual differentiation at puberty
happens cause of surge of GnRH & LH, FSH before and during puberty
Tanner scale
assesses sexual development
tanner stages for girls and what happens and age (5)
1: no physical signs. adrenal increase in androgens cause body hair to grow

2: pit releases gonadotrophins. ovaries enlarge and secrete estrogens. estrogens cause physical changes associated with puberty. breast buds and growth spurt. some public hair. (8-13)

3. breats grow beyond areola. uterus vagina, genitals continue to enlarge, underarm and pubic hair, growth spurt continues (9-14)

4. menstruation begins (ireggularly), ovulation happened 6-9mths after menarche, growth spurt slows down, hair growth continues (10-15)

5. periods become regular, adult body type (11-16)
tanner stages for boys and what happens (5)
1: no physical signs. adrenal increase in androgens cause body hair to grow

2: pit releases gonadotrophins. testes and scrotum grow, penis stays same size (9-14)

3. penis gets longer (testosterone), small amounts of breast growth (gynecomastia), height increases, muscles enlarge, voice deepens (10-14)

4. penis gets wider, sperm production starts, and so does ejaculation, facial and underarm hair, height increases rapidly (11-16)

5. adult height, muscles continue to grow (12, 17)
sex in reptiles and birds
reptiles: determined by temperature,

in birds: male is default
estradiol has masculinizing efects (t/f)
true
babies at 8 months can differentiate betwen sexes (t/f)
false, happens at 9 months
5-alpha reductase deficiency (4)
5 alpha reductase converts T to DHT

- DHT is more potent than T

- lack of it:
• leads to female morphology until puberty, followed by conversion to male at puberty
• gender identity follows closely
complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (what it is 2, indicators 2)
- born XY
- external genitalia completely female at birth
- puberty as a female (because testes create androgen > estrogen)

Physical indicators of CAIS in adolescence
- amenorrhea (no menstrual cycle)
- decreased or absent pubic hair/body hair
- tall
treatments for CAIS (3)
- removal of gonads after puberty

- surgical creation of a vagina

- vaginal dilation (painful and uncomfortable for young girls). must be half an hour a day
klinefelter syndrome (7)
- at risk if you have XXY sex chromosomal configuration
- slightly feminized physique
- female type pubic hair pattern, small testes
- make less testosterone (pre-pubescent penis size, make little/no sperm, normal sex life)
- pear shaped body, weaker bones
- language deficits from lower verbal IQ
- gender identity is not always male or female. often transition to transgendered or intersexed
non-disjunction
unequal distribution of chromosomes during meiosis (happens for XXY and XYY).
XYY (3)
1 in 1000 incidence

non-disjunction at meosis II

- taller, much lower intelligence, higher aggression
above are consequences of over exposure to testosterone
Turner's syndrome
XO chromosome type (one of the chromosomes is missing)
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (3)
the adrenal galnds produce androgens instead of cortisol and aldosterone (impacts women (masculinization, enlarged clit), not men)

- 21-hydroxylase deficiency (autosomal recessive genetic disorder). the enzyme doesnt work.

- the pituitary senses a lack of cortisol and releases more ACTH, adrenal gland makes androgens (only thing it can make from 17-OHP)
famel vs. male reproductive behaviour (time)
males have constant, females have specific times (cyclic)
male mice lacking estrogen receptors
show normal mounting behaviours when they lack 1 of them, but no sexual behvaiours when they lack both.
hyperplasia
enlarged adrenal glands (to produce cortisol)
classic vs. nonclassic CAH
95% of cases. severe (21-hydroxylase deficieny), from birth.
vs.

5% of cases. mild (11-hydroxlyase deficiency),starts in early childhood to adulthood

- both are autosomal reccessive
symptoms of CAH in women (14)
- ambiguous genitalia, enlarged clit & joined labia
- abnormality is i nthe external genitalia only
• Premature development of pubic hair
• Advanced bone age
• Severe acne
• Childhood body odor
• Oily hair and skin
• Depression
• anxiety
• Symptoms usually commence shortly after the onset
of menstruation.
• Thinning of hair on head and infertility.
• Facial hair that is dark and course on the upper lip
and chin.
• The menarche could be normal or delayed but there
tends to be menstrual irregularities.
• Formation of ovarian cysts due to the disruption of
the gonadotropin release and its effects on the
ovaries.
symptoms in men (6)
acne, growth spurts, early beard growth, small testes, low sperm count, short
gender identity and CAH (5)
Childhood/Adolescence:
• Increase in testosterone levels / increased male
typical play (e.g. desire male careers).
• More aggressive
• Less interested in marriage, motherhood, feminine
appearance (jewellery, makeup) than controls
• Lower levels of empathy, intimacy.
• Gender identity is ambiguous
• Rank themselves somewhere in between typical girls
and tomboys (more aggressive, more male play)
sexual orientation and CAH (3)
• Less heterosexual activity
• Homosexual fantasies and increased occurrence of
homosexuality and bisexuality.
• CAH>NCAH>control
treatment of CAH (3)
- provide glucocorticoids to reduce CRH and ACTH

hydrocortisone (infnacy, childhood),

dex/prednisone (adolescents, adults)
gender dysphoria (what it is, symptoms)
• XX or XY chromosomes
• Male or female feels strong identification with the opposite sex
• Feel as if trapped in the body of the opposite sex

symptoms
- beleive they will grow up to be opposite sex
- express desire to be opposite sex
- disgust with their own genetelia
-not due to a physically intersex condition
gender role
culturally based
behaviour patterns and
expectations specific to one sex
history of gender roles
prehistoric: hunter-gatherers and nurturers at home

early 1900: women in domestic roles, gender roles enhanced by fashion styles

1920s: female roles challenged conservativeness, women getting an education and securing jobs more often

1950s: stereotypic housewife role prominent in media and advertising, women did both careers and work at home

today: men share household responsibilties. women gain powerful roles. still inherent gender roles
heteronormativity impacts same-sex couples
Heteronormativity often imposes it's norms on homosexual couples, with the assumption that one partner will take the passive female role, while the other fills the role of the assertive male.
in castrated rats, copulatory behaviour is predicted best by ______
dopamine
individual differences in male sexual behaviour
Individual differences in sex drive are retained following castration and equally matched Testosterone restoration
decrease in sexual behaviour and hormone concentration for males
not necessarily matching. could be cause of other environmental factors and hormones
sexual experience and hippocampus
increases hppcmpus size, despite release of stress hormones, sexual experience increases exploratory/learning behaviours
female sexual behaviour (3 components)
attractivity, proceptivity, receptivity
estrous cycle (subpart of menstrual cycle) stages (4)
- most likely period for mating, coincides with ovulation

proestrus: follicle development

estrus: follcles are maturing, estrogens have biggest influence, female is sexually active

metestrus: early corpus luteum development

diestrus: mature corpus luteum regresion and reorganization for next cycle
attractivity ( how its observed 2, functions 2, when its most intense)
-observed from behaviour of the female and of males toward the female in question

- adaptive functions: bringing the male to the female
- allowing male to identify female's reproductive status

- most intense during time of high estrogens
measuring attractivity (6)
• Acceptance Ratio (AR): the ratio of female invitations
that elicit mounting behaviour by the male
• PROX score: male moving to be next to a female (i.e.
male in proximity of female)
• Visual fixation
• Male erection
• Male performance of a learned response
• Copulatory behaviours terminating in ejaculation
flemen response
- curling back the upper lip and tilting back the head when investigating female genitals

-allowed chemosignals to reach the VNO
coolidge effect
time to ejaculation for a male to a female increases after the pair have copulated several times, normal response when presented with a new female
proceptivity (definition, 3)
appetitive activities shown by females in response to stimuli from males

- in lab settings we look at receptive pattterns and ignore proceptive patterns, leading to misconception that females passively recieve sexually aggressive males

-female's appetitive behaviour is a reflection of the male's sexual attractivity
measures of proceptivity (5)
• Affiliative behaviour
• “Solicitational” behaviour
• Alternating approach and
withdrawal
• Physical contact responses
• Mounting by the female
significance of proceptivity (2)
• Serves as an arousal to the male when
necessary
• Facilitates, coordinates and synchronizes the
bodily adjustments for genital union and penile insertion
• E.g. lowland gorillas
estrogen on proceptivity (3)
- highest behaviours during estrus cycle

- lowland gorillas have highest preq of presentation

- chimpanzees: 60% of approaches by females during maximal genital swelling
females attracted to males who are ____ (2)
mature and social dominant, displaying their erect genitals

can be a personal preference in gorillas, dogs, sheep
receptivity (3)
involving behaviour
exhibited by females in response to stimuli normally
provided by conspecific males. consummatory phase of the mating sequence

**definition is misleading because females play an active role in mating

- behaviour must be sufficient for penetration and ejaculation
nonhormonal determinants of receptivity
- estrogen is neccessary, not sufficient
- sexual differences

ex: dogs have selective receptivity (personal preferences)
lazarus: stress vs. challenge
stress: demand > resources vs.

challenge: resources > demand
the two stress systems
SNS and HPA axis
blascovich and mendes biophysical model of stress (3)
- physiological toughness
- events as challenge or threat

challenge: heart rate accelerates (SNS), cortisol stable (HPA inactive), bP stable (EN),

threat: heart rate accn (SNS), cortisol increases (HPA active),bP rises (medulla inhibited),
dickerson & kameney:
social self preservation model of stress (2)
psych stress: social threat, HPA

vs.

fear, physical threat, SNS
james herman (2 types of stressors)
• Reactive: Pain, homeostatic signals,
Inflammation

• Anticipatory: Predators, Unfamiliar
environments, social challenges, classically
conditioned stimuli
proposed combination of stress models (2)
demand > resources

factor A (type of threat):
social
physical

factor B (type of response)

anticipatory
reactive
measures of stress (3)
Measures of HPA activity: CRH, ACTH,
Cortisol

Measures of SNS activity: Adrenaline
(Epinephrine), Noradrenaline
(Norepinephrine), Heart rate, blood
pressure...

Alpha-amylase
alpha amylase (6)
- salivary enzyme

- 40-50% of salivary gland proteins

- 80% made in parotid gland (cheek)

reflects both HPA and SNS activity

-acinar cells make it (innervated by SNS)

- predicts 30 mins later levels of blood cortisol
characteristics of the HPA (3) rhythms
- low levels in winter (infraradian rhythm)

- circadian rhythm (peaks after awakening, declining levels throughout the day nadir around midnight)

-pusatile release (ultradian rhythm), secretory busts every 90 mins. psychological stress can cause additional bursts throughout day
feedback loops (1st, 2nd, 3rd order examples)
1st: hyp (oxytocin) > non-endocrine target cell.

2nd: hyp (GHRH) > pit (GH) > non-endocrine target cell.

3rd: hyp (CRF) > pit (ACTH) > adrenal cortex (glucocorticoids) > non-endocrine target cell.
amygdala, brainstem and stress vs. hippocampus and stress
activated, increased stress

vs.

activated, decreased stress
why stress is bad for the brain: GLUCOCORTCOID CASCADE HYPOTHESIS (3 reasons)
EVENTUALLY RECEPTORS WILL DOWNREGULATE AND YOU WILL NOT RESPOND

- supposed to be mediated by HPA axis

- neurotoxic effects of glucocorticoids in the brain (hippocampus is susceptible) BUT: stress doesnt kill cells.

- allostatic load concept (powerful physiological consequences like chemical imbalance and diurnal rhythm is messed up).
sex differences in disease
women:
mood disorders
autoimmune disorders
somatic complaints
cardiovasular disease

men:
early mortality
substance abuse
infectious dieases

THESE CHANGE OVER TIME!!!
androgenous type vs. undifferentiated type individuals
highly masc and feminine (more adaptive) vs

low masc and low fem (less adaptive)
maladaptive stress responses (4)
repeated hits (overuse of HPA axis)

2. lack of adaptation (still releasing high amounts each time)

3. prolonged response (activity doesnt go down)

4. inadequate response (activity doesnt go up). burnout fybromyalgia, CFS, and PTSD do this.
menstrual cycle and ACTH
- men have wy higher levels of ACTH/ml

luteal phase is most similar levels of stress as men for women
menstrual cycle and plasma cortisol
similar levels in women and men. women taking oral contraceptives were way higher.
gender effects on stress for men
alone, stranger, wife massaging, or with friends, stress is high

with wife: stress is low
gender effects on stress for women
alone, with friends, husband massaging, stress is low

with husband: stress is high
behavioural responses to stress in females
tend and befriend
gender identity measures (2)
bem sex role inventory

personality attributes questionnaire

**BOTH OUTDATED
women in follicular phase and stress
increased stress when in presence of men (sexual tension?)
acute vs chronic stress
allostasis vs. allostatic load "wear and tear".
primary secondary and tertiary outcomes
molecules burnout,

disregulation of insulin, TGLs, glucose, fibrinogen,

diff diseases
AL index
catches things that are not at a critical level. uses age, sex, ethnicity and SES.
gender relation to AL index
more masculinized role, more AL, espcially for women in this role
sexual minority stress
- gay and bisexual men had less stress than men
- if they come out there is less stress
response to stressors by sexual orientation
women and gay men: low response to normal stressors

lesbian women and men: high response to normal stressors
dysregulation of HPA: depression
HPA activity goes up, causal to depressive symptoms. has to do with limbic system (SE and NE neurons)

- increased amygdala and PFC activity
top down stress vs. bottom up stress
limbic system > BST and hypothalamus > HPA, SNS (psyc)

branstem, CVO > BST and hypothalamus > HPA, SNS (pain)
early life stress and HPA dysregulation (3)
hyperactive HPA activity

ELS (ie/ childabuse) makes depression more likely

low hippocampal volume
tests for HPA axis function (5)
CRH added to system, you should see more release downstream, same with ACTH

Adding DEX should inhibit the pituitary. makes cortisol = 0. (subjects dont feel the effect of having no cortisol)

combined DEX/CRH > silences HPA axis, now you can see baseline of cortisol based on how much CRH you give

- baseline circadian rhythm measurement

-stress test (uncontrollability and unpredictability causes stress in HPA best). embarassment is linked to this. HPA should respond.
PTSD and HPA dysregulation (4)
- less active HPA axis (overstimulation)
- matyrapore administration (stops cortisol in adrenal cortex) reduces feedback inhibition of pit and hyp.
- increase in cort. is higher in PTSD than most patients.
- super sensitive to negative feedback and to increases (hyperactive).
Cushing's
increase in corticoid release
more hippocampal volume, _____ self esteem, ____ social stress, _____ parental care at birth
more, less, more
montreal imagining stress test
decreased activity in hippocampus, parahip, gyrus
aromatase
enzyme converting androgen > estrogen
vagina, cervix, uterus
1. tubular tract from uterus to exterior of body
2. lower narrow portion of the uterus
3. muscular reprod organ, located in pelvis
ovaries
oocyte-producing organs
mentstrual cycle main functions (2)
1. mature an egg
2. prepare body for fertilization & pregnancy
chain of hormonal activity during menstrual cycle
GnRH from hypothal > LH, FSH from pit gland
LH function in menstruation
ovulation - causes mature follicle to release an egg
FSH function in menstruation
promotes the development of follicles in ovary
EST and PROGEST function in menstruation (2)
progest: makes the endometrial lining ready for implantation of an embryo

est: makes the cervical mucous fertile
Estrogen timeline in menstruation
increases slowly in follicular phase, peaks shortly before ovulation, stays high for luteal phase
Progest timeline in menstruation
peak in luteral phase, low in follicular phase, begins increasing during ovulation
step 1 of follicular phase
FSH and LH levels rise, FSH causes follicles to start growing
step 2 of follicular phase (2)
- granulose cells surrounding follicles proliferate and increase LH receptors

follicles begin producing est
step 3 of follicular phase (2)
estrogen increases, feedback negatively on pit and hypothal lowering GnRH, FSH and LH

eventually, one follicle becomes dominant
selection of dominant follicle
Estrogen inhibits FSH, so not all follicles can grow anymore, only the one with most FSH receptors can get enough FSH to keep growing
- the others die
what happens if you apply extra FSH?
many follicles grow to dominance

- this is why in vitro and hormone replacements cause many twins.
step 4 of follicular phase
- dominant follicle secretes more estrogen, it begins having a +ve feedback effect on hypothal causing LH to surge.

. eventually leads to ovulation
when does ovulation happen?
usually on the 14th/15th day of the menstrual cycle
how does estrogen switch from (+) to (-) feedback on hypothal during follicular phase?
- it has two types of receptors on the hypothal.

- alpha (- feedback) and beta (+ feedback)
- B receptrs have LOW AFFINITY for estrogen, a [ ] threshold is reached where betas begin to be occupied and LH surge becomes possible

- so basically, low estrogen is - feedback and high estrogen has + feedback
why do LH and FSH drop after ovulation?
cause the follicle is no longer producing est, and lower est levels inhibit LH FSH again.
luteal phase beginning and end points (2)
14th day: formation of corpus luteum

28th day: luteolysis or pregnancy
what happens to ruptured follicle after ovulation
turns into corpus luteum
during luteal phase, corpus luteum grows and secretes _________ (what, from where)
progest from granulosa cells

and some estrogen from theca cells
luteolysis
only happens if pregnancy doesn't occur.

- it atrophies cause of lack of FSH and LH
- est and progest begin to drop because of this
PMS (3)
- there are physical and psychological symptoms

- experienced in a spectrum

- 7-10 days before menstruation until 24 hrs after menstruation begins
percentages of women experiencing PMS (3)
80% have some symptoms

20-30% experience moderate to severe symptoms

2-6% experience most severe variant, PMDD
is PMS psychological or physical?
there is evidence for both:
- estrogen and progestrone levels cause it for some ppl

- some people have the symptoms if they thought they were close to their period

- its not hormone levels but receptor make up/sensitivity to the hormones that causes PMS
why does PMS exist?
some people think it is a by product of women being pregnant less often
menstruation (3: trigger, what happens, length)
- triggered by falling progest levels

-endometrium is shed, woman loses 10-80ml of blood

- lasts from 2-7days
implantation of the egg results in release of what hormone?
human chorionic gonadotrophin
> measured by pregnancy tests to tell you you're pregnant
function of hCG
prevents menstruation from happening, maintains the growth of the corpus luteum until placeenta can take over
prolactin in early pregnancy
- neccessary for lactation and some maternal behaviours

- high, low, high throughout pregnancy
estradiol in pregnancy
low, rises at the end
endometriosis (5)
- presence of endometrial tissue in other parts of the body

- might be caused by reflux of endometrial tissue during menses

-responds to the rise and fall in estrogen/progesterone levels circulating the body

- can create scar tissue/form strands that bind organs

- affects 1 in 10 women b/w 20-44

- can cause infertility/painful urination/pain during sex/short cycles/heavy flow
anovulation (2)
due to hormonal imbalance: sometimes stress, weight loss, excessive excersize, drugs

- ovearies get filled with small immature follicles or cysts (polycystic ovarian syndrome)
definition of menopause
- absence of menses for more than 12 months
amenorrhea
absence of menses in a woman of reproductive age
perimenopause
six years before menopause when menstrual cycles become irregular
follicles throughout aging (3)
- at birth, between 3-7million

- puberty, 10 to 3% of the original amount

- menopause, 0.1%
why menopause happens
- follicles are no longer stimulated by LH and FSH

- there is no LH and FSH regulation mechanism (follicles produce the estrogen that inhibits LH/FSH)

- since follicles dont develop, menstrual cycel cant proceed and chance of future menstrual cycle are reduced
oral contraceptives: progest+est type (2)
- progest has -ve feedback on hypothal, stops GnRH
-est has -ve feedback on ant pit, reducing LH/FSH,
- these prevent follicle development & ovulation

- endometrium still built/shed: menses happens cause est+progest build it up
oral contraceptives: progest only type (3 doses)
progest only: 3 types

very low dose - doesn't stop ovulation, but thickens the cervical mucus preventing sperm penetration

medium dose: inhibits ovulation in most, plus mucus thickening

high dose: completely stops follicular development + effects on mucus

- whether you have bleeding or not depends on if you have real hormone pills or placebo for the last week of the month
age of menopause (risks of early or late onset)
- normal age is 51

- before 45 risks:
- death, cardiovascular diseasse, osteoporosis

after 47 risks:
- breast and endometrial cancer
hormone replacement therapy (3 waht is it, why do people do it)
- substitution of est + progest after menopause

- used to cure side effects of hormonal imbalance

- will have effects that estrogen normally has before menopause:
does HRT induce ovulation or a menstrual cycle?
no, because there are not enough follicles/they have not developed. doesn't cause menstrual cycle either (because no ovulation happens)
problems with "HRT increases breast cancer death risk" study
- weak correlation, worked because of large sample size
estrogen in inhibitory interneurons
- supresses GABA function in hippocampal interneurons

- disinhibition of CA1 neurons and upregulation of NMDA receptors and synapse formation
how does Est affect cells in CNS? (mechanism, where (3))
- crosses BBB
- binds intracellular receptors, becomes a TF for gene expression

receptors:
in hippcampus CA1, some in CA3 and dendate gyrus

- acts on:
-hippocampal pyramidal cells
- connections b/w hippocampal regions
- astrocytes
estrogen-induced synaptogenesis
- estrogen supresses GABA function in hippocampal interneurons that inhibit CA1 cells.

disinhibition of CA1 neurons causes upregulation of NMDA receptors and synapse formation
estrogen and cognition (4)
high estrogen leads to improved

verbal fluency,
verbal learning and memory
speeded articulation,
manual speed/coodination
estrogen and learning strategy (strategy types, impact of estrogen use)
- place/allocentric navigation: hippocampus dependent

- response/egocentric navigation: caudate nucleus dependent

-becuas eof hippocampal growth, rats with higher estrogen showed more use of place/allocentric navigation strategies
voxel based morphometry (how itss done, problems)
- neuroimaging technique with MRI used to investigate differences in brain anatomy volume

- grey, white and CSF separated. you're comparing the grey matter mostly

-grey matter individually viariates
taxi cab drivers
enlarged hippocampus volume because
study showing about estrogen + hippocampal density
- compared high est and low est phase

- higher estrogen = higher right anterior hippocampus density

- used voxel mased morphometry, controlled for between-subject variation cause they used subjects throughout their cycle.
bisphenol A (3)
- an industrial chemical with estrogen-like properties
- could result in low fertillity, sperm count
- sarnia ontario, there are less males being born and bisphenol-A is used a lot industrially
estrogen + hippocampal volume
larger left (compared to men) and larger right (compared to everyone)

- not significant in childhood, but has effects in adulthood
where in the US is obesity lowest? (3)
colorado, conneticuit, vermont
> connected to high SES?
hedonic foods
- high in fat and sugar
- act on reward pathway in brain
- evolutionarily the best type of foods to have found
homeostasis
maintaining a steady state by physiological or behavioural feedback control
orexigenic peptides (2) (examples, what they do)
ghrelin, NPY, AgRP, MCH, Orexin A/B, galanin

- increase motivation to eat
anorexigenic peptides (2), what they do
leptin, insulin, alpha-MSH, CRH TRH, CART, POMC, GL-PI

- decrease motivation to eat
ghrelin (locations of production 2, actions 3)
- produced in stomach and arcuate nucleus (hyp)

- regulates food intake
- stimulates release of GH from ant pit
- activates ACh-DA reward link: reinforcing and hedonic aspects of food
- orexogenic
feast or famine
used to describe food conditions of early humans
ghrelin rhythms
-diurnal, exactly in phase with leptin

-blood concentrations peak around the time of meal onset (2x), fall within 1 hr after eating
prader willi syndrome
- genetic
- fasting plasma ghrelin levels elevated
- hyperphagia and obesity
-mild growth retardation
leptin (produced where, binds where, actions)
- is an adipokine hormone (produced in adipose tissue)
- concentrations are proportionate to weight, and food in

-binds to receptors in hypothalamus (actively transported across BBB)
- inhibits eating, sends satiety signals, and makes energy use higher
ob / db
gene coding for leptin (found on chromosome 7)

gene coding for leptin receptors

-mutatations in these genes show obesity in rats
- these are rarely found in humans, can be treated with daily leptin injections
why doesnt leptin stop people from getting fat? (2)
- obesity might be a result of poor active transport of leptin
>> obese people have higher levels of blood leptin

- aging might contribute to leptin resisitance
stress and obesity
- chronic release of glucocorticoids and CRH drive stressed people to seek out pleasurable foods (increased weight)

-chronic stress (chronically high cortisol) leads to increased plasma ghrelin but not brain ghrelin
insulin
anorexigenic, regulates long term food intake patterns
anorexia nervosa/ bulima nervosa
self starving. bulimia involves binge eating and then purging
- onset at puberty
- TEND to be perfectionist
anorexia (6)
- refusal to maintain body weight at a normal weight

- fear of gaining weight or being fat

- disturbance in the way that a body weight or shape is experienced

- amenorrhea

- TEND to be perfectionist

-10% diagnosed die

-also associated with hypogonadism, delayed puberty and increased stress
sex differences in eating disorders
- much more in women than men

- men do more purging, men to excessive excerise
bulemia (5)
- onset in late teens early 20s

- binge eating followed by purging

- purging can be vomiting, laxatives, fasting, excessive excersise

- high comorbidity with depression, anxiety, substance use, MAYBE sexual abuse

- mood swings

- trouble controlling impulses
bulemia vs. anorexia recovery rates
people recover from bulemia much better
other eating disorders
- anorexia without amenorrhea
- chewing and spitting out
- bulemia without weight gain/loss
who has more eating disorders hetro or homosexual men
homosexual
"western" values and eating disordrs
- idealization of thinness in the west
- they are culture bound
child sexual abuse and eating disorders
positive correlation
high testosterone is implicated in which eating behaviour?
binge eating
estrogen and eating disorders
- low prenatal testosterone and high adult levels of estrogen are ascociated with AN and BN
biological rhythms (definition)
recurrence or alternation of different quantities or conditions
mesor
rhythm adjusted mean (the mean concentration of something that follows a rhythm)
acrophase
reference time (any time) until the peak
acrometron
from peak to trough (2A)
ultraradian rhythms vs. circadian rhythms vs. infraradian rhythms
- more than once a day vs. once a day vs. less than once a day
types of infraradian rhythms (4)
circavigintan

circatrigintan

seasonal

circaannual
where are circadian rhythms usually controlled in the brain?
super chiasmatic nucleus in the brain

-it has the internal clock within this nucleus
most hormones have 1 rhythm length (t/f)
false, they have many, but follow one dominant one
est, testosterone, LH, FSH what is their dominant rhythm?
infraradian
melanopsin
photopigment that is in retinal cells connected to the SCN, catch the light signal that allows the internal rhythms to coordinate with the environment
chronobio pathway
light > retinal cells > SCN > pineal gland

- activation of pineal gland inhibits melatonin release
- melatonin has its own impacts on behaviour
blind people and rhythms(3)
- synchronize rhythms through social cues and cues through other senses

- but they have problems with insomnia, pacemakers move in and out of phase with the 24hr day (free-running phase)

- higher melatonin than other people
free-running of the pacemaker
because it is naturally 26 hours, they stay up 50% longer and it is staggered and doesnt overlap perfectly with days.
internal desynchronization (definition, examples 2, consequences 3)
- the internal clock is quickly upset from its relationship with the environment

- jet-lag
-late work shift

-fatigue, low mental performance, poor motor coordination
travelling east or west is worse for jet lag?? why (2)??
- travelling east. there is phase advance (day gets shorter) and you get more symptoms

- phase-delay when travelling west

***ITS EASIER TO STAY UP THAN FORCE YOURSELF TO SLEEP***

***NATURAL TENDENCY TO STAY UP - BIOAVAILABILITY ***
traffic accidents and daylight savings time
the rate of accidents increases by more than 5% the week after time change

(due to internal desynchronization)
why do trees know when to shed leaves (a seasonal rhythm)?
- based on the length of the day
melatonin in winter vs. summer
longer melatonin in winter, shorter in summer (less daylight vs. more daylight)

- this might have to do with breeding activities
why is the circadian rhythm 25hrs? (2)
- maybe at the begginign of the earth, the day was longer

- it could have been a mutation that didnt effect us much
cortisol awakening response (3)
peak around 9am, nadir at midnight
- NOT a by product of waking up (happens even when you stay sleeping)
- might function to prepare you for the day
burnout and cortisol response
hgih burnout = lower cortisol awakening response
cortisol awakening response and life stress and PTSD
positive correlation between general life stress and CAR

negative correlation between CAR and PTSD (burnout?)
hippocampal damage and C.A.R.
- dmg to hippocampus LOWERS cortisol awakening response.
cognition
higher level brain functions: problem solving, perceiving, language etc
hormones and perception (2)
- attention is correlated to cortisol

- finding the positive information in a search task can lower your stress levels
cog abilties sex differences (2, why amplified)
women
verbal fluency - better in women, correlated with estrogen
- brain activation is also high in women and gay males

men
visuospatial - ability to manipulate 2d/3d figures: estrogen is -vely correlated after birth, prenatal androgens positively correlated

-sex differences are amplified by the skills that people practice throughout their lives
which is larger, within sex variation or between sex variation?
between sex variation
verbal fluency component (4)
- ability to generate words
-grammar, spelling
-reading
-vocabulary
testosterone and spatial/math tests
low T in men = better performance

high T in women = better performance
retention latency
hesitance to enter a room when there is shock.

used as a measure of memory: higher latency, more memory
glucocorticoid effects on memory consolidation
increases it

in the amygdala:
more corticoids, more memory
stress during learning and retrival
- stress during learning is good, stress during retrieval is bad
basolateral nucleus of amygdala
important in fear conditioning, adding glucocorticoids to it makes it better at fear conditioning

- HPA and SNS axies meet in the amygdala
- amygdala turns both for useful long term information
stress and moral decision making (2)
- if under stress, you are less likely to make the "right" moral decision.

- stress lowers PFC activity, which normally keeps desires in check
Three aspects of attachment
• Partner attachment
• Parental attachment
• Trust
partner attachment in prairie vs. montane voles (2)
- prarie voles have 3-7x higher oxytocin recptors
- concentrated in NAcc and pre limbic cortex
- prairie voles are more attached
parental attachment in prarie vs montane vole
- # of oxytocin recptors surges in montane vole during nursing (bare minimum of 16 days)

- surge happens cause of labour and childbirth

- since its such a sudden surge, this is not impacted by downregulation of receptors (feedback mechanisms to keep the recptors in check)
3 chamber design
- prairie vole and montane vole act differently
- have a partner in one chamber, stranger in the other

- oxytocin inhibitiion makes voles spend equal time with stranger and partner
vasopressin and partner preference
- similar effect as oxytocin
sheep and oxytocin
- stimualtion of MPOA and olfactory bulb by NE releases oxytocin
maternal behaviour in humans
- oxytocin and vasopressin help induce maternal behaviour

- they are released by stimuli coming from offspring (visual, tactile, olfactory, etc)
partner attachment in humans (3)
- sexual arousal stimulates release of oxytocin in both men and women

- distribution of oxy receptors matches monogamy patterns in humans

- oxy has a role in social organization
oxytocin and trust
- trust game paradign: (similar to stock market)

- when given oxytocin, investors would invest the highest amounts without knowing if they will get back or not. this is not just riskyness because they didnt do this when dealing with a computer, only with humans. also not an increase in general prosocial behaviour.
does oxytocin cause trust?
no, hormones amplify the chances of specific behaviours, never cause them.
oxytocin and borderline personality disorder (3)
HINDERS trust and cooperation

- prisoners game: BPD people did the less logical thing just to make sure they could hurt someone else.

-so, oxytocin might just amplify already existing social tendencies.
sleep and ghrelin article, why is it poor?
- the idea is that short sleeping time might make people eat more

- the conclusion doesnt directly pertain to the hypothesis (conclusion has info about insulin, into has general statement about hormones)

- using a lot of variables means that you dont know what you're looking for.
glucagon like peptide 1
- inhibits glucagon, helps insulin release
- it lowers blood sugar
ghrelin and sleep (m vs w)
ghrelin much higher in women than in men
menstrual cycle phase and female attractivity
- they said that follicular stimulus was selected more often than luteal

- made the stimulus by averaging womens faces during menstrual phases

- didnt put the physical differences into the conclusion, but much better than the other study
theories
organized systems of assumptions that aim to explain
phenomena and their interrelationships.
hypotheses
attempt to predict or account for a set of phenomena; specify
relationships among variables, and are empirically tested
operational definitions
define terms in hypotheses by specifying the operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon
upside and downside to correlational studies
- can test predictions, evaluate theories and suggest hypotheses

pitfalls:
- cant infer causal relationships b/w variables
scatter diagrams
something you use to measure correlation
coefficient of determination
r^2. the amount of variability explained by the opposite variable.
strengths and weaknesses of experiments
- can establish a cause-effect relationship

con:
- confounding variables that you dont control for
hindsight bias vs. overconfidence
- overestimating predictive abilities in the past vs. overestimating pridctive abilities for the future
Clever Hans and water memory are examples of what
experimenter expectancy effect (researchers unintentionally bias their study outcome)
types of samples (3)
random

representative

convenience
what is the best index of central tendency in a skewed distribution?
median
inferential statistics
mathematical models that let us determine if we can generalize findings to the population (from ample)
statistical vs. practical signifiance
- less than 5% chance of happening
vs.
- real world importance
the neuron doctrine
cajal: nervous system is composed of separate cells
neurons are specialized for (2)
1) communication

2) information processing.
micro tubules vs. neurofilaments vs. microfilaments
transport vs. structural support vs. change in structure (synapses)
astrocytes functions (5)
•
Structural support
•
Blood-brain barrier
•
Isolate synapse
•
Collect molecules from
the synapse
•
Possible role in neural
communication
oligodenrocytes vs. schwann cells
- myelin for CNS vs. PNS
what channels do IPSPs impact
- open K+ and Cl- channels
hormones released by pit (6)
ACTH

GH

PRO

TSH

LH

FSH
____ gland is responsible for sexual maturation
thyroid
thyroid hormones and brain dev (3)
- lack causes impairments in cell migration, outgrowths of neurons, synaptogenesis, building of myelin sheaths, proliferation of glia cells

• if not treated immediately after birth, permanent mental
retardation is inevitable

• some neurological effects (non-permanent) also as adult
organizational hormone action (4)
• Pre- and early postnatal development
• Hormones 'sculpt' neural and behavioral systems

1. permanent and irreversible

2. can only occur during critical development periods

3. lead to permanent structural and / or physiological
changes

4. asymmetric with regards to the sexes
activational hormone action (4)
• Later in development
• not permanent - only displayed when
hormone is present
• no critical development periods
• more subtle changes
finger-length ratio
4th digit / 2nd digit is usually longer, how much longer depends on exposure to testosterone
eicosanoids
- lipid derived
-ex: prostaglandins
peptide and protein hormone examples
TRH, vasopressin

vs.

insulin, growth hormone
what are the top 5 reasons why prohormones exist
1. Prohormones
stabilizes
the 3D structures of
peptides
during synthesis
(act as a wall)

2. Prohormones are easier to
transport
&
package
than hormones
(like a moving box.....)

3. Prohormones act as
storage
reserve (they store active hormones)

4. Prohormones can
regulate
the amount of hormones released

5. Prohormones are more
resistant
to degradation than hormones
and they have a longer half-life
where does cholestrol get converted to pregnenolone
- in the mitochondria
what differentiates the steroid hormones produced at adrenal glands vs. gonads??
- expression of different enzymes/enzyme concentrations
microorchidism
small, firm testicles seen in Klinefelters
aldosterone (2)
produded in adrenal cortex

- maintains K and Na levels, normal blood volume
when is a female most fertile?
estrus phase (peak in estrogen, late follicular)
ultrashort loop feedback
1st order feedback in a feedback loop with 3 orders (3 endocrine glands).

ex: CRH release in hypothalamus ihibiting the release of further CRH from the hypothalamus
sandra bem on gender
its not a continuum, its separate roles
sex specific diseases (3 each)
women:
mood disorders
autoimmune disorders
somatic complaints
cardiovas

men:
- early mortality
- substance abuse
-infectious disease
Hans Selye (2)
discovered stress because he treated his animals poorly

started the tradition of not using female subjects because of menstrual cycle
gendered cotisol response to different stressors (2)
men:
inachievement stressors

women:
social rejection stressors
boys vs. girls treatment from birth
boys
- active, independent (no supervision)
- room for independent achievement

girls
- dependent behaviour and nurturing play
- social success is emphasisedd
what are desirable traits in adolescent girls?
closeness and dependency
allostasis
acute, manageable stress
allostatic load
a holistic measure of stress

taking into account:
SDOH
support
gender
etc.
do female workers in traditionally male roles have higher or lower stress?
higher
sexual minority stress (3)
- distal processes

- objective stressors (real stigma)
- proximal processes - subjective stressors (felt stigma)

- discrimination
LGBT stress health consequences
- more vulnerable to psychiatric disorders:

- anxiety
- depression
-burnout
sexual orientation and stress hormones
increased test, increased cort

- increased est, decreased cort
why glucocorticoids probably done CAUSE cell damage in CNS
however, HC ‘loss’ even in Cushing’s is reversible
•
no higher AD incidence after hypercortisolemia
•
volume change more likely due to change in
water and electrolyte content
stress and deactivation of brain areas
less activity in the limbic system (PCC, HC, amygdala) during psycosocial stress
hedonic feeding
feeding based on the rewarding properties of calorie dense food.
food and emotion
- high fat foods = attenuation of sad emotions

-sad emotions = made hgih fat foods less tasty
stress and ghrelin
- rise in ghrelin might help withstand pain, lack of sleep, and subclinical inflammation

- chronic social defeat stress is correlated with increase in ghrelin and more food intake
interactionism (3)
- traits cant predict behaviour across situations

- traits are only predictors of behaviour in specific contexts

- behaviours depend on how they interpret the situation
oxytocin and perception
intranasal oxytocin increases gazes to the eye region
face changes during menstrual cycle incluflenced by which hormone?
- by progesterone
sleep duration affects _____ ghrelin levels but not ________
male, female
ironic processes theory
you say what you are trying hardest not to say