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61 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Failure-to-Thrive (FTT)
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A condition in which infants become malnourished and fail to grow for no apparent medical reason
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What is Failure-to-Thrive associated with?
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It is associated with disturbances in mother-child interaction that are thought to stem from characteristics of both child and mother
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How is Piaget's Theory described?
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Often labeled constructivist because it depicts children as constructing knowledge for themselves; “child as scientist”
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How are children seen in Piaget's Theory?
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Children are seen as:
-Active -Learning many important lessons on their own -Intrinsically motivated to learn |
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How does Jean Piaget's Theory stand against all other child development theory?
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Jean Piaget’s theory remains the standard against which all other theories are judged
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Assimilation
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The process by which people translate incoming information into a form they can understand
Easily take in and understand basic information - see your dog and know its fuzzy |
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Accomodation
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The process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences
Understanding not all dogs are fuzzy like his dog |
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Equilibration
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The process by which people balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding
Find a balance and solidify your understanding of the world, category, situation, etc. |
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Piaget's Cognitive Stages of Development
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Sensorimotor
Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational |
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Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development
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Birth to 2 years
Infants know the world through their own senses and trough their actions. Live largely in the here and now. Ex: Learn what dogs look like and what petting them feels like |
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Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development
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2-7 Years
Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. Also begin to be able to see the world from other people's perspectives, not just from their own, but they lack well-organized systems, leading them to conservation error A mix of impressive cognitive acquisitions and equally impressive limitations |
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Characteristics of Preoperational stage
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Symbolic representation (acquisition)
Centration (limitation) Egocentrism (limitation) Lack of Conservation Concept |
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Symbolic Representation
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the use of one object to stand for another, which makes a variety of new behaviors possible; progressing to rely less on self-generated symbols and more on conventional ones
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Centration
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the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event, e.g. height, length
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Egocentrism
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the tendency to perceive the world solely from one’s own point of view
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Conservation Concept
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the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not change their key properties
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Concrete Operational
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Children become able to think logically, not just intuitively. They now can classify objects into coherent categories and understand that events are often influenced by multiple factors, not just one, but not abstract thinking.
7-12 years |
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Formal Operational
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Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is. This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning, even draw conclusions differing from prior beliefs.
12+ years |
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Changes and similarities between preoperational stage and concrete operational stage
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Children begin to reason logically about the world
They can solve conservation problems, but their successful reasoning is largely limited to concrete situations Thinking systematically remains difficult Educational application – “child-centered approach” takes into account such general age-related differences in cognitive level in timing the teaching of various concepts |
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Changes and similarities between concrete operational and formal operational stage
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Cognitive development culminates in the ability to think abstractly and to reason hypothetically
Individuals can imagine alternative worlds and reason systematically about all possible outcomes of a situation Piaget believed that the attainment of the formal operations stage, in contrast to the other stages, is not universal (not everyone gets to the formal operational level) |
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Weaknesses in Piaget's theory we now know
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The stage model depicts children’s thinking as being more consistent than it is
Infants and young children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognized (he had an n = 3, and his tasks were more demanding, e.g. reaching v. eye fixations) Piaget’s theory understates the contribution of the social world to cognitive development Piaget’s theory is vague about the cognitive processes that give rise to children’s thinking and about the mechanisms that produce cognitive growth |
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Information-Processing Theories
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View of Children’s Nature: Child as Problem Solver & Limited Capacity Processing System (continuous cognitive change)
Memory capacity Efficiency of thought processes Availability of relevant strategies and knowledge |
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Statistical Learning
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Involves picking up information from the environment, forming associations among stimuli that occur in a statistically predictable pattern
From quite early on, infants are sensitive to the regularity with which one stimulus follows another Product Placement |
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Memory System Components
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The basic organization seems to be constant at least from age 6 through adulthood, but the capacity and speed of operation increase greatly over time
Sensory Memory Working Memory Long Term Memory |
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Sensory Memory
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can hold a moderate amount of information for a fraction of a second. Its capacity is relatively constant over much of development
Refers to sights, sounds, and other sensations that are just entering the cognitive system and are briefly held in raw form until they are identified |
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Working Memory
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A workspace in which information from the environment and relevant knowledge are brought together, attended to, and actively processed
is quite limited in both capacity and duration. Its capacity and speed of operation increases greatly over childhood and into adolescence |
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Long Term Memory
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can retain an unlimited amount of information indefinitely, and the contents of long-term memory increase enormously over development
Refers to information retained on an enduring basis |
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Encoding
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the process of representing in memory information specific features of objects and events
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How is encoding linked to child development?
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Encourages development by allowing infants to learn and remember even in their earliest days
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Characteristics of encoding
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Children fail to encode a great deal of other information
Some crucial information, such as data on the relative frequency of events, is encoded automatically Children, however, do not encode all of the important information in the environment |
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Amygdala
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-autobiographical memory
-infantile amnesia |
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Mood Congruence
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-Girls’ greater attentiveness to the emotional cues of others may be reflected in the fact that, across the lifespan, females are more likely than males to initiate and maintain eye contact
---Higher levels of mutual gaze are apparent in female infants by 3 to 4 months of age ---High levels of fetal testosterone linked to avoidance of eye contact -Depression, which is more common among females at all levels of severity, often has its onset during puberty, possibility implicating the sex hormone estrogen -Testosterone and anger |
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Processing Speed
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The speed with which children execute basic processes increases greatly over the course of childhood
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What are contributing factors to processing speed?
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Biological maturation and experience contribute to increased processing speed
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Biological Processes that contribute to faster processing speed
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Two biological processes that contribute to faster processing are myelination and increased connectivity among brain regions
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Myelination
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axons of neurons have a myelin sheath
Myelin , the fatty insulating substance, promotes faster and more reliable transmission of electrical impulses in the brain |
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Increased Connectivity
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Enhances efficiency of neural communication by also enhancing the ability to resist distractions
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Schema
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comes from the Greek word "σχήμα" (skhēma), which means shape, or more generally, plan
influences our attention, as we are more likely to notice things that fit into our schema E.g., stereotypes, social roles, rubric, archetypes, worldview, categories, situations plan for how you think of something to allow more efficient information handling, helps you process information more quickly |
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How is processing speed affected with age?
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Processing Speed Increases with Age
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Mental Strategies
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Strategies are another major source of learning and memory development
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Mental strategies that emerge between ages 5-8
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Rehearsal
Selective Attention |
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Rehearsal
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The process of repeating information over and over to aid memory
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Selective Attention
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The process of intentionally focusing on information that is most relevant to the current goal
7-8 yr olds: focus on cued category, e.g. animals 3-4 yr olds: pay roughly equal attention to both categories of objects, which reduces their memory for the objects they need to remember |
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Overlapping-waves theory
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children use a variety of approaches to solve problems
At any given time, children possess several different strategies for solving a given problem With age and experience, the strategies that produce more successful performance become more prevalent |
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Analogical Reasoning in early life
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A rudimentary form emerges around age 1
It is limited, however, to situations in which the new problem closely resembles the old Analogies still used in standardized testing, e.g. SAT, GRE |
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Analogical Reasoning in middle childhood
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Even in middle childhood, younger children often require more surface similarity to draw an analogy than do older ones
“A camera is like a tape recorder” for 6 v. 9-year-olds The frontal lobe, a part of the brain that plays an important role in inhibition, is one of the last parts of the brain to mature |
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Dynamic-Systems Theories
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Emphasize how varied aspects of the child (perception, motor activity, attention, language, memory, and emotions) function as a single, integrated whole to produce behavior
Dynamic-systems approach improves are understanding of how development occurs EX: A not B error |
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Aspects of Dynamic Systems Theories
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Previous attending to, and reaching toward location a
Habit Wherever they were looking Simply seeing an object being hidden repeatedly Motor development |
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Core-Knowledge Theories
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Physics (birth)
Psychology (18 months) Biology (3 years) domain specific, or limited to a particular area (language, space, number, physical objects, plants and animals, and people) |
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Domain Specific
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limited to a particular area (language, space, number, physical objects, plants and animals, and people)
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Core Knowledge Approaches
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Emphasize the sophistication of infants’ and young children’s thinking in areas that have been important throughout human evolutionary history
Like Piagetian and information-processing theories, core-knowledge theories depict children as active learners, constantly striving to solve problems and to organize their understanding into coherent wholes Specialized learning mechanisms, or mental structures, that allow them to quickly and effortlessly acquire information of evolutionary importance, such as face perception and language “I didn’t break the lamp, and I won’t do it again.” ~ 3-yr-old, to mother false statement from deception study, showing lack of complete egocentric-ness |
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Sociocultural Theories
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Whereas previous theories emphasize children’s own efforts to understand the world, sociocultural theories emphasize the developmental importance of children’s interactions with other people
Instead of “little scientists,” Vygotsky portrayed children as “social beings” Humans are seen as unique because of their inclination to teach each other and to learn from each other |
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Attributing Dispositional States
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Twelve-month-olds also seem able, like adults, to attribute dispositional states
Infants watched a film that adults interpret as a ball “trying and failing” to get up a hill as it is being “helped” by a triangle and being “blocked” by a square Subsequently, with just the three shapes on the screen, infants looking behavior indicated that they expected the ball to approach the helpful triangle while avoiding the hindering square |
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Sociocultural Approaches
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Emphasize guided participation, a process in which more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to engage in them at a higher level than they could manage on their own, sometimes using cultural tools
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What do most sociocultural theorists believe?
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Sociocultural theorists believe that many of the processes that produce development, such as guided participation, are the same in all societies, content differs
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Intersubjectivity
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“meeting of the minds”
The mutual understanding that people share during communication Serves as the foundation of human cognitive development Roots evident by 2-3 m: greater animation & interest when mothers respond to their infants’ actions By 6 m, infants can learn novel behaviors by observation Joint Attention, Social Referencing |
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Joint Attention
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A process in which social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment
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Social Referencing
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The tendency to look to social partners for guidance about how to respond to unfamiliar or threatening events
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Sociocultural Influence
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Adults can influence a child's memory or attention
4-month-olds cued by eye-gaze, leading to greater object processing and memory |
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Social Scaffolding
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A process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children’s thinking at a higher level than children could manage on their own
The quality of scaffolding that people provide tends to increase as people become older and gain experience Isaac Newton noted, it enables the new generation to stand on the shoulders of the old and thus to see farther |
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Zone of Proximal Development
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Refers to the range of performance between what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal support
This principle often involves providing younger children with more concrete instruction and older children with more abstract information Executive Capacity - Attachment, 18 m |
