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111 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is an Attitude? |
an evaluation of a person, object, or idea |
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What are the three components of Attitudes? |
1) the Affective component - emotional reactions to the attitudinal object 2) the Cognitive component - thoughts and beliefs about the attitudinal object 3) the Behavoural component - actions towards the attitudinal object |
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Contrast Explicit and Implicit Attitudes |
Implicit Attitudes - attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and unconscious Explicit Attitudes - attitudes that we can consciously endorse and can easily report |
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Explain the Theory of Planned Behaviour |
a theory that the best predictors of a person's planned, deliberate behaviours are the person's attitudes towards specific behaviours, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control |
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What are Persuasive Communications |
communications advocating a particular side of an issue |
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Explain the Yale Attitude Change Program |
a approach that poses conditions under which people are likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages 1) who: the source of the message 2) what: the content of the message 3) whom: the target audience |
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What three things due advertisements appeal to in order to persuade us to buy products? |
1) Pathos = appeals to emotion 2) Logos = appeals to logic 3) Ethos = appeals to credibility |
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Explain the Elaboration Likelihood Model |
the theory there are two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change 1) the central route 2) the peripheral route |
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What is the Central Route of Persuasion? |
the case where people elaborate on persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the argument |
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What is the Peripheral Route to Persuasion? |
the case where people don't elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication and are swayed by peripheral cues or surface characteristics |
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What is Fear-Arousing Communication? |
a persuasive communication that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears |
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What is Attitude Inoculation? |
the process of making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position |
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What is Cognitive Dissonance? |
a feeling of discomfort caused by the realization that one's behaviour is inconsistent with one's attitudes or that holds conflicting attitudes |
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What is Cognitive Dissonance Theory? |
the theory that holds we are motivated to reduce or avoid cognitive dissonance by re-establishing consistency |
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What are the three ways to alleviate dissonance discussed in lecture? |
1) Changing one of the dissonant cognitions 2) Changing one's behaviour to bring it in line with the dissonant cognition 3) Justifying behaviour by adding new cognitions |
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What is Post-Decision Dissonance? |
dissonance inevitably aroused after a person makes a decision |
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What is the Justification of Effort and how does it relate to Post-Decision Dissonance? |
Justification of Effort - the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain Justification of effort is often used to reduce post-decision dissonance by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives |
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Contrast Internal and External Justifications |
Internal Justification - the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself External Justification - a persons reason or explanation for dissonant behaviour that resides outside the individual |
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Explain Counter-Attitudinal Advocacy and how it relates to Internal/External Justifications |
Counter-Attitudinal Advocacy - the process that occurs when a person states an opinion or attitude that runs counter to their private beliefs or attitudes Counter-attitudinal advocacy leads to cognitive dissonance and results in attitude change when one can't find external justifications |
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What is the Rationalization Trap? |
the potential for dissonance reduction to produce a sucession of self-justifications resulting in a chain of incorrect |
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What is the Banality of Evil? |
the notion that under certain circumstances, anyone can commit appalling acts |
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What are the psychological processes that lead to "evil acts"? |
1) take the first step 2) conformity to norms and roles 3) diffusion of personal responsibility 4) Deindividualization 5) Dehumanization of others |
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What is Conformity? |
a change in behaviour as a result of the real or imagined influence of other people |
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Contrast Private Acceptance and Public Compliance |
Private Acceptance - conformity to others' behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing is right Public Compliance - conformity to others' behaviour publicly, without necessarily believing in what they are doing or saying |
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What is Informational Social Influence? |
conforming because we believe that others' interpretations of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action |
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Does Informational Social Influence lead to private acceptance or public compliance? |
Private Acceptance |
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When do people conform to Informational Social Influence? |
1) when the situation is ambiguous 2) when the situation is an emergency 3) when other people are experts |
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What is Mass Psychogenic Illness? |
the occurrence of similar physical symptoms for which there is no know physical or medical cause in a group of people |
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What is Normative Social Influence? |
the influence of other people that leads to conformity in order for us to be liked/accepted by them |
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Does Normative Social Influence lead to private acceptance or public compliance? |
Public Compliance |
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What are social norms? |
implicit or explicit rules a group has for acceptable behaviour, values, and beliefs of its members |
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Explain Social Impact Theory |
the theory conformity to social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of people in a group |
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What are idiosyncratic credits? |
credits a person earns, over time, by conforming to a group's norms |
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What reduces normative social influence? |
1) having an ally 2) private responding |
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What is Deindividualization? |
the loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when people are in a group, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts individuals wounldn't otherwise do when alone |
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What are the three explanations for deindividualization discussed in class? |
1) anonymity of being a group reduces sense of accountability 2) reduced self-awareness shifts attention away from moral standards 3) group identity becomes more salient than personal identity |
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What is Minority Influence? |
the case in which a minority of group members influence the behaviour or beliefs of the majority |
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Does minority influence appeal to informational social influence or normative social influence? |
informational social influence |
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What is Compliance? |
a change in behaviour in response to a direct request from another person |
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What is the Door-in-the-Face Technique? |
a technique to get people to comply with a request by first presenting a large request that is expected to be refused, then presenting a smaller more reasonable request to which it is hoped the person till agree |
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How does the door-in-the-face technique operate? |
It operates by invoking the reciprocity norm |
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What is the Foot-in-the-Door Technique? |
a technique to get people to comply with a request by presenting first a small request to which the person is expected to agree, followed by a larger request to which it is hoped they will also agree |
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How does the foot-in-the-door technique operate? |
It operates by triggering a change in self-perception |
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What is Lowballing? |
an unscrupulous strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost and then subsequently raises the price |
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How does lowballing operate? |
1) though reversible, the original decision to buy constitutes a commitment that produces the illusion of irreversibility 2) the commitment triggered an anticipated event, the prevention of which would produce disappointment 3) the product is perceived to be as costly anywhere else |
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What is obedience? |
conformity in response to the commands of an authority figure |
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what is the role of informational social influence in obedience? |
authority defines the meaning of a situation, thus we believe nothing is wrong |
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What is the role of normative social influence in obedience? |
actions that are part of a social role get compartmentalized, thus one can lose one's personal identity while in the role |
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What is Dehumanization? |
the psychological process of denying humanness to another person or group |
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What are the components of prejudice? |
1) Affective component = prejudice 2) Behavioural component = discrimination 3) Cognitive component = stereotyping |
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What is Prejudice? |
a negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership to that group |
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What is Modern Prejudice? |
outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes |
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What is Discrimination? |
unjustified or unfair treatment toward members of a group, solely because of their membership to that group |
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What are Stereotypes? |
a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variations among the members |
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What is Social Categorization? |
cognitive process in which a person is classified into groups based on common characteristcs |
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Contrast In-Groups and Out-Groups |
In-Groups - groups in which we feel a sense of affiliation, identity, and belonging Out-Groups - groups with which we don't identify and differentiate ourselves from |
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What is In-Group Bias? |
the tendency to evaluate and treat in-group members more positively than out-group |
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Why do we show an in-group bias? |
1) in-group membership provides a social identity 2) we get a self-esteem boost from believing our own group is superior to out-groups |
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What are the three ways discussed for reducing prejudice? |
1) changing people's perception of "us" vs. "them" by promoting a common identity 2) changing people's perception of "us" vs. "them" byemphasizing the superordinate group to which both groups belong 3) providing people with an alternative route to self-esteem |
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Explain the idea of the activation of stereotypes |
stereotypes can be automatically activated by environmental cues and impact the way we feel and perceive the out-group |
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What factors influence the activation of stereotypes? |
1) the motivation to control prejudice 2) whether we will get a self-esteem boost by doing so |
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What are Meta-Stereotypes? |
a person's beliefs regarding the stereotype that out-group members hold about their in-group |
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What is the Ultimate Attribution Error? |
our tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people |
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Explain Realistic Conflict Theory |
the theory that limited resources lead to conflicts among groups and results in increased prejudice and discrimination |
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What is Injuctification? |
a motivated tendency to see the status quo as the most desirable state of affairs |
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What three traits, discussed in the text, produce individual differences in prejudice? |
1) Right-Wing Authoritarianism 2) Religious Fundamentalism 3) Social Dominance Orientation |
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What is Right-Wing Authoritarianism? |
a trait associated with prejudice that is characterized by three clusters of attitudes: 1) authoritarian submission = high degree of submission to authority figures 2) authoritarian aggression = aggression toward groups legitimated as targets by authority figures 3) conventionalism = high degree of conformity to rules established by authority figures |
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What is Religious Fundamentalism? |
a belief in the absolute and literal truth of one's religious beliefs |
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What is Social Dominance Orientation? |
belief that groups of people are inherently unequal and that it's acceptable for some groups in society to benefit more than others |
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What were the two effects of prejudice discussed in class? |
1) Stereotypes are self-perpetuating 2) Stereotype Threat |
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Explain how stereotypes are self-perpetuating |
implicit activation -> confirmation bias -> self-fulfilling prophecy |
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What is Stereotype Threat? |
anxiety experienced by targets of a stereotype that their behaviour might confirm negative stereotypes |
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What is the Contact Hypothesis |
under certain circumstances, contact between members of an in-group and out-group can reduce prejudice |
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What are the six conditions under which contact reduces prejudice? |
1) mutual interdependence 2) Common goal 3) individuals are equal status 4) informal setting for interaction 5) multiple out-group members present 6) social norms in the setting support equality among groups |
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Explain the Jigsaw Classroom intervention |
a classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice between children by placing them in small, desegregated groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well |
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What is the Extended Contact Hypothesis? |
the mere knowledge that a member of one's own group has a close relationship with a member of another group can reduce one's prejudice toward that group |
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What is Aggression? |
intentional behaviour aimed at causing either physical or psychological harm |
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Contrast Hostile and Instrumental Aggression |
Hostile Aggression - an act of aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury Instrumental Aggression - aggression as a means to some goal other than causing harm |
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What is the gender difference in aggression? |
males = more physical aggression females = more relational aggression |
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What is Testosterone and what is its role in aggression? |
Testosterone - a male sex hormone associated with aggression greater testosterone = greater aggression However, a meta-analysis found a weak correlation between the two and testosterone levels fluctuate depending on situational factors |
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Explain the Evolutionary Theory of Aggression |
the theory that argues aggression in males is inherent to perpetuate one's genes and thus males are aggressive for three reasons: 1) to gain status and power 2) to attract the best mate 3) out of sexual jealousy to ensure paternity |
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What are the limitations/criticisms of the evolutionary theory? |
1) De-emphasizes purpose behind aggressive behaviour 2) underestimates situational factors 3) Research evidence is indirect 4) Some aggressive behaviour seems unrelated to survival 5) Aggression isn't inevitable; it's optional |
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Explain Social Learning Theory in relation to aggression |
the theory that we learn social behaviour, including aggression, by observing and imitating others |
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Explain how Cultural Factors relate to aggression |
cultural groups differ in their levels of aggression Culture of Honour - a culture in which it's socially appropriate for men to take aggressive action when their honour has been insulted |
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Explain how Social Exclusion relates to aggression |
when we are socially excluded by others we are more likely to aggress |
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Define Frustration |
when we are blocked from obtaining a goal |
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What is the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis? |
the theory frustration will increase the likelihood of an aggressive reponse |
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What are factors increasing the frustration effect/ |
1) when frustration is unexpected 2) Relative deprivation - the perception that you have less than you deserve, less than you've been led to expect, or less than what similar people have 3) when the goal was close, but not obtained |
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What two revisions did Berkowitz's add to the frustration hypothesis? |
1) any aversive stimulus increases aggression Negative Affect Theory - aversive stimuli produce unpleasant feelings which lead to aggressive inclinations 2) the aversive stimulus must be combined with an aggressive cue Aggressive cues prime aggression |
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Explain the General Aggression Model |
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Are Catharsis ("blowing off steam") and punishment effective strategies for reducing aggression? |
Both are ineffective strategies |
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What is Actively Enabling? |
an effective strategy for reducing aggression through the use of simple techniques, such as counting to 10 and deep breathing, before clearly, calmly, and non-judgmentally communicating one is angry and why |
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What is Prosocial Behaviour? |
any act with the goal of benefiting another person |
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Explain the Evolutionary Theory of Prosocial Behaviour |
Kin Selection - the idea that behaviour that helps a genetic relative is favoured by natural selection Also argues the norm of reciprocity and learning social norms are a biologically programmed tendency |
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Explain what Social Exchange Theory says about prosocial behaviour |
argues all prosocial behaviour is motivated by self-interest |
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What is Altruism? |
the purely selfless desire to help another person or group, even if it involves a cost to the helper |
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What is Empathy? |
the ability to experience events and emotions the way another person experiences them |
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What is the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis? |
the idea when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help them purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain |
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What is the Empathy-Joy Hypothesis? |
the idea we help when we see the positive impact of our help and the positive emotions it will bring to us |
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What is Altruistic Personality? |
aspects of a person's makeup that cause them to help others in a wide variety of situations |
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What is the gender difference found in prosocial behaviour? |
males = more likely to offer help when helping is heroic females = more likely to offer help when help involves nuturance and committment |
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How does socioeconomic status impact prosocial behaviour according to the text? |
low SES individuals are more likely to help than high SES individuals |
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What cultural difference in prosocial behaviour is described in the text? |
Individuals in all cultures are more likely to help an in-group member than an out-group member Individuals in collectivist cultures are less likely to help an out-group member than individuals in individualistic cultures |
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What is the effect of positive mood on prosocial behaviour? |
people are more likely to help when in a good mood |
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What is the effect of negative mood on prosocial behaviour? |
Negative-State Relief Hypothesis - the idea people help in order to alleviate their own sadness and distress |
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Explain how an urban vs. small town environment effects prosocial behaviour |
people are more likely to help in a small town than in an urban setting Urban-Overload Hypothesis - the theory that because people living in cities are constantly being bombarded with stimulation, they keep to themselves to avoid being overloaded by it |
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How does Residential Mobility impact prosocial behaviour? |
people who have lived in the same place for a long time and thus feel a sense of community are more likely to help |
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What is the Bystander Effect? |
the finding that the greater the number of bystander who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them will help |
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What are the steps to bystander intervention? |
1) Noticing an event 2) Interpreting an event as an emergency 3) Assuming personal responsibility 4) Knowing how to help 5) Deciding to help |
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What are the challenges of each step to bystander intervention? |
1) being distracted, in a hurry, or overloaded reduces the likelihood of noticing an emergency 2) Pluralistic Ignorance - the phenomenon whereby bystanders assume that nothing is wrong in an emergency because no one else looks concerned 3) Diffuse of Responsibility - a reduced sense of personal responsibility to help as the number of bystanders to an emergency increases 4) not knowing how to help reduces the likelihood of helping 5) Cost Reward Analysis - people will help when benefits of helping and costs of not helping outweigh costs and barriers to helping |
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What should you do to get help in an emergency? |
1) get yourself noticed 2) state you need help 3) single someone out 4) tell them what to do 5) emphasize rewards to helping |
