Psyc-2600 Final Exam Review

Front 1

What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

Back 1

classical conditioning involves reflexive behaviours where a stimulus elicits a behaviour;

operant conditioning involves goal oriented behaviour where a behaviour results in a stimulus that influences future behaviour

Front 2

Define Thorndike's Law of Effect

Back 2

behaviours that lead to satisfying states of affairs are strengthened while behaviours that lead to unsatisfying states of affairs are weakened

Front 3

What are B.F. Skinner's two classified types of behaviour?

Back 3

Respondent behaviour and Operant behaviour

Front 4

What are the three components of operant conditioning?

Back 4

1) the operant behaviour

2) the operant consequences

3) the operant antecedents

Front 5

Define Operant Behaviour

Back 5

a class of responses that result in certain consequences which affect the future probability of those responses

Front 6

State and define the two types of Operant Consequences?

Back 6

1) reinforcer - an event that follows the behaviour and increases the future probability of that behaviour

2) punisher - an event that follows the behaviour and decreases the future probability of that behaviour

Front 7

Reinforcer is to _________ as reinforcement is to ___________.

Back 7

reinforcer is to consequence as reinforcement is to process or procedure.

Front 8

Define Discriminative Stimulus

Back 8

a stimulus in the presence of which responses are reinforced or punished and in the absence of which they are not reinforced or punished

Front 9

Define and give an example of Three-Term Contingency

Back 9

the relationship between a discriminative stimulus, operant behaviour, and operant consequence

Front 10

What are the four types of contingencies in operant conditioning?

Back 10

1) positive reinforcement

2) negative reinforcement

3) positive punishment

4) negative punishment

Front 11

Define Positive Reinforcement

Back 11

the presentation of a stimulus following a response which leads to an increase in the future strength of that response

Front 12

Define Negative Reinforcement

Back 12

the removal of a stimulus following a response which leads to an increase in the future strength of that response

Front 13

Define Positive Punishment

Back 13

the presentation of stimulus following a response which leads to a decrease in the future strength of that response

Front 14

Define Negative Punishment

Back 14

the removal of a stimulus following a response which leads to a decrease in the future strength of that response

Front 15

What has a stronger effect on a target behaviour: immediate or delayed reinforcement?

Back 15

immediate reinforcement

Front 16

Contrast Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Back 16

primary reinforcer - an event that is innately reinforcing

secondary reinforcer - an event that is reinforcing because it has been associate with some other reinforcer

Front 17

contrast Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reinforcement

Back 17

intrinsic reinforcement - reinforcement provided by the mere act of performing the behaviour

extrinsic reinforcement - reinforcement provided by some consequence that is external to the behaviour

Front 18

What can be a consequence of introducing an external reinforcer to a behaviour?

Back 18

the external reinforcer may decrease the strength of an intrinsic reinforcer

Front 19

Contrast Natural and Contrived Reinforcers

Back 19

natural reinforcers - reinforcers that are typically provided for a certain behaviour

contrived reinforcers - reinforcers that have been deliberately arranged to modify a behaviour

Front 20

Define Shaping

Back 20

the gradual creation of a new behaviour through reinforcement of successive approximations to that behaviour

Front 21

What are the step in shaping?

Back 21

1) identify the goal behaviour

2) identify the present level of performance

3) identify steps toward the goal behaviour

4) reinforce the first behavioural step until mastered, then move to the next step, and so on

Front 22

Define Chaining

Back 22

constructing a sequence of behaviours whereby reinforcement is only delivered after the final response in the sequence

Front 23

Identify and describe the three methods of chaining discussed in class

Back 23

1) forward training - practicing the first response in the chain and then adding successively new elements

2) backward training - practicing the last response in the chain and then adding successively new elements

3) whole-chain method - practicing the entire chain simultaneously

Front 24

Define Schedule of Reinforcement

Back 24

the response requirement that must be met to obtain reinforcement

Front 25

Define Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Back 25

a schedule where each specified response is reinforced

Front 26

Define Intermittent or Partial Reinforcement Schedule

Back 26

a schedule in which only some responses are reinforced

Front 27

What are the four basic intermittent schedules?

Back 27

1) Fixed Ratio (FR)

2) Variable Ratio (VR)

3) Fixed Interval (FI)

4) Variable Interval (VI)

Front 28

Define and give an example of a Fixed Ratio Schedule

Back 28

reinforcement delivered after a set number of responses

Front 29

Define and give an example of a Variable Ratio Schedule

Back 29

reinforcement delivered after an unpredictable or average number of responses

Front 30

Define and give an example of a Fixed Interval Schedule

Back 30

reinforcement of the first response after a set period of time

Front 31

Define and give an example of a Variable Interval Schedule

Back 31

reinforcement of the first response after an unpredictable or average period of time

Front 32

What are the patterns of response produced by the four basic intermittent schedules?

Back 32

Fixed ratio = a high rate of response and short post-reinforcement pauses

Variable ratio = the highest rate of response with no post-reinforcement pauses

Fixed interval = a scalloped pattern of response

Variable interval = a moderate and steady rate of response with no post-reinforcement pauses

Front 33

Define Duration Schedule

Back 33

a schedule in which reinforcement is contingent on the behaviour being performed continuously for a certain period of time

Front 34

Define Fixed Duration Schedule (FD)

Back 34

a schedule in which reinforcement is contingent on the behaviour being performed continuously for a set period of time

Front 35

Define Variable Duration Schedule (VD)

Back 35

a schedule in which reinforcement is contingent on the behaviour being performed continuously for an unpredictable period of time

Front 36

Define Response-Rate Schedule

Back 36

a schedule in which reinforcement is directly contingent upon the organism's rate of response

Front 37

Define Differential Reinforcement of High Rates (DRH)

Back 37

a schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon responding at a fast rate

Front 38

Define Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)

Back 38

a schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon responding at a slow rate

Front 39

Define Differential Reinforcement of Paced Responding (DRP)

Back 39

a schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon responding at a set rate; neither too fast or too slow

Front 40

Define Non-contingent schedules of reinforcement

Back 40

a schedule in which the reinforcer is delivered independently of any responses

Front 41

Define Fixed Time Schedule (FT)

Back 41

the reinforcer is delivered following a fixed period of time, regardless of an organism's behaviour

Front 42

Define Variable Time Schedule (VT)

Back 42

the reinforcer is delivered following an unpredictable period of time, regardless of an organism's behaviour

Front 43

Define Complex Schedule

Back 43

a schedule combining two or more simple schedules

Front 44

Define Conjunctive Schedule

Back 44

a complex schedule in which the requirements of two or more simple schedules must be met before a reinforcer is delivered

Front 45

Define Adjusting Schedule

Back 45

a complex schedule in which the response requirement changes as a function of the organism's performance while responding for the previous reinforcer

Front 46

Explain Drive Reduction Theory

Back 46

states an event is reinforcing to the extent that it's associated with a reduction in some type of physiological drive

Front 47

Explain Incentive Motivation Theory

Back 47

states reinforcers act as a motivating incentive to respond

Front 48

What is the reward centre in the brain and how does it work?

Back 48

The Nucleus Accumbens

it's stimulated by reinforcers and releases dopamine which produces a rewarding sensation

Front 49

Explain the Premack Principle of Reinforcement

Back 49

the notion a high probability behaviour (HPB) can be used to reinforce a low probability behaviour (LPB)

Front 50

Explain the Response Deprivation Hypothesis

Back 50

the notion a behaviour can serve as a reinforcer when 1) access to the behaviour is restricted and 2) its frequency is below its preferred level of occurence

Front 51

Explain the Behavoural Bliss Point Approach

Back 51

the theory an organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behaviour in such a way as to maximize overall reinforcement or achieve the behavioural bliss point

Front 52

What is a Token?

Back 52

a conditioned reinforcer that can be accumulated

Front 53

Define and give an example of a Token Economy

Back 53

a program in which a group of individuals earn tokens for a variety of desirable behaviours and can exchange them for backup reinforcers

Front 54

What are the advantages of Token Economies?

Back 54

1) tokens can be immediately given, bridging long delays

2) various backup reinforcers can be used, thus targeting different motivational levels

Front 55

Define Extinction

Back 55

the discontinuation of reinforcement of a previously reinforced response, resulting in a decrease in the strength of that response

Front 56

Contrast Extinction and Negative Reinforcement

Back 56

extinction involves the elimination of an existing reinforcement contingency;

negative reinforcement involves taking away a reinforcer that is already present

Front 57

Identify and explain the side effects of Extinction

Back 57

1) extinction burst

2) increase in variability of behaviour

3) emotional behaviour

4) aggression

5) resurgence

6) depressive symptoms

Front 58

Define Resistence to Extinction

Back 58

the extent to which responding persists after an extinction procedure has been implemented

Front 59

Identify and explain the factors affecting resistence to extinction

Back 59

1) the schedule of reinforcement

2) the history of reinforcement

3) the magnitude of the reinforcement

4) the degree of deprivation

5) previous experience with extinction

6) presence of a discriminative stimulus for extinction

Front 60

Define Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviour (DRO)

Back 60

the rinforcement of any behaviour other than the target behaviour being extinguished

Front 61

Define Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behaviour (DRI)

Back 61

the reinforcement of behaviour that is incompatible with the target behaviour being extinguished

Front 62

Define Stimulus Control

Back 62

a situation in which the presence of a discriminative stimulus reliably affects the probability of a behaviour

Front 63

Define Stimulus Generalization

Back 63

the tendency for an operant response to be emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the discriminative stimulus

Front 64

Define Generalization Gradient

Back 64

a measure of the strength of responding in the presence of stimuli similar to the discriminative stimulus and vary along a continuum

Front 65

Define Stimulus Discrimination

Back 65

the tendency of an operant response to be emitted mire in the presence of one stimulus than another

Front 66

Define Discrimination Training

Back 66

differential reinforcement of responding in the presence of one stimulus and not another stimulus

Front 67

Define Peak Shift Effect

Back 67

following discrimination training, the peak of a generalization gradient will shift from the discriminative stimulus to a stimulus further from the discriminative stimulus for extinction

Front 68

Define Multiple Schedule

Back 68

a complex schedule consisting of two or more independent schedules presented in sequence, each resulting in reinforcement and each having a discriminative stimulus

Front 69

Define Behavioural Contrast

Back 69

a change in the rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces an opposite change in the rate of response on another component

Front 70

Define Negative Contrast Effect

Back 70

an increase in the rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces a decrease in the response rate of another component

Front 71

Define Positive Contrast Effect

Back 71

a decrease in the rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces an increase in the rate of response on another component

Front 72

Define Anticipatory Contrast

Back 72

the process whereby the rate of response varies inversely with an upcoming, anticipated change in the rate of reinforcement

Front 73

Define Errorless Discrimination Training

Back 73

a discrimination training procedure that minimizes the number of errors and reduces any of the adverse effects associated with discriminatory training

Front 74

Describe the two phases of Errorless Discrimination Training

Back 74

1) discriminative stimulus of extinction is introduced early in training, soon after the organism learns to respond to the discriminative stimulus

2) discriminative stimulus for extinction is presented in weak form to begin and then gradually strengthened (aka fading)

Front 75

Define Escape Behaviour

Back 75

a behaviour that results in the termination of an aversive stimulus

Front 76

Define Avoidance Behaviour

Back 76

a behaviour that occurs before presentation of an aversive stimulus and prevents its delivery

Front 77

Explain the Two-Process Theory of Avoidance

Back 77

the theory avoidance behaviour is the result of two distinct processes:

1) classical conditioning, in which a fear response comes to be elicited by a CS

2) operant conditioning, in which moving away from the CS is negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear

Front 78

Explain the Anxiety Conservation Hypothesis

Back 78

avoidance responses usually occur so quickly there is insufficient exposure to the CS for the conditioned fear to be fully extinguished

Front 79

Identify and define the two types of Negative Punishment

Back 79

1) time-out - the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a brief period of time following the occurrence of a problem behaviour

2) response-cost - the removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a problem behaviour

Front 80

Contrast Intrinsic and Extrinsic Punishement

Back 80

Intrinsic punishment - punishment that is an inherent aspect of the behaviour being punished

Extrinsic punishment - punishment that isn't an inherent aspect of the behaviour being punished but simply follows the behaviour

Front 81

Contrast Primary and Secondary Punishers

Back 81

Primary punisher - an event that is innately punishing

Secondary punisher - an event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with some other punisher

Front 82

What are the problems with using punishment?

Back 82

1) punishment of inappropriate behaviour fails to increase appropriate behaviour

2) punishing one behaviour may result in generalized suppression of other behaviour

3) deliverer of punishment may become a discriminative stimulus for punishment

4) Punishment may teach the person punished to avoid the deliverer of punishment

5) Punishment is likely to elicit a strong emotional or aggressive response

6) Punishment may teach the person punished to punish others

7) punishment is negatively reinforcing for the deliverer of punishment

Front 83

What are the possible benefits of punishment?

Back 83

1) increase in social behaviour

2) improvement in mood

3) increase in attention

Front 84

What are the rule for the effective use of punishment?

Back 84

1) punishment should immediately follow the target behaviour

2) punishment should follow each occurrence of the target behaviour

3) punishment should be intense enough to suppress the target behaviour

4) the individual cannot escape the punisher

5) negative punishment is preferred over positive punishment

6) punishment more effective when followed by an explanation

7) punishment of inappropriate behaviour should be combined with positive reinforcement of appropriate behaviour

8) reinforcement of inappropriate behaviour is removed

Front 85

Explain the Conditioned Suppression Theory of Punishment

Back 85

the theory punishment doesn't weaken behaviour but instead produces an emotional response that interferes with the occurrence of the behaviour

Front 86

Explain the Avoidance Theory of Punishment

Back 86

the theory punishment involves a type of avoidance conditioning in which the avoidance response consists of a behaviour other than the behaviour being punished

Front 87

Explain the Premack Principle of Punishment

Back 87

the notion a low probability behaviour (LPB) can be used to punish a high probability behaviour (HPB)

Front 88

Define Learned Helplessness

Back 88

a decrease in learning ability that results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable events

Front 89

Define Social Learning

Back 89

learning that relies on a demonstrator or model and an observer

Front 90

What are the four types of social learning we learned?

Back 90

1) contagious behaviour

2) local enhancement

3) stimulus enhancement

4) observational learning

Front 91

Define Contagious Behaviour

Back 91

a more-or-less reflexive behaviour triggered by the occurrence of the same behaviour in another individual

Front 92

Define Local Enhancement

Back 92

when a model directs attention to a particular place, making it more likely that the observer will approach that place

Front 93

Define Stimulus Enhancement

Back 93

when a model directs attention to a particular object, making it more likely that the observer will approach that object

Front 94

Define Observational Learning

Back 94

a response acquired as a result of observing the behaviour of a model and its consequences, without the modelled response being performed by the observer

Front 95

Define True Imitation

Back 95

a form of observational learning that involves the close duplication of a novel behaviour or sequence of behaviour

Front 96

Define Generalized Imitation

Back 96

the tendency to imitate a new modelled behaviour with no specific reinforcement for doing so

Front 97

Define Vicarious Emotional Conditioning

Back 97

the classical conditioning of an emotional response resulting from observing that emotional response exhibited by others

Front 98

What are the factors influencing attention and the acquisition of an operant response through modelling?

Back 98

1) consequences of the model's behaviour

2) whether the observer receives reinforcement for paying attention

3) whether the observer has sufficient skills to benefit from the modelling

4) the personal characteristics of the model

Front 99

What are the ways reinforcement and punishment influence our performance of modelled behaviour?

Back 99

1) more likely to perform a behaviour that was observed being reinforced

2) more likely to perform a modelled behaviour when we will be reinforced for performing it

3) our history of reinforcement or punishment for performing modelled behaviour

Front 100

Define a Rule

Back 100

a verbal description of a contingency

Front 101

Define Rule-Governed Behaviour

Back 101

behaviour that has been generated through exposure to rules

Front 102

What are the disadvantages of Rule-Governed Behaviour?

Back 102

1) often less efficient than behaviour directly shaped by natural contingencies

2) sometimes insensitive to the actual contingencies of reinforcement operating

Front 103

Define Personal Rules

Back 103

verbal descriptions of contingencies that we present to ourselves to influence our behaviour

Front 104

Define Say-Do Correspondence

Back 104

a match between what we say we are going to do and what we actually do at a later time

Front 105

Define Personal Process Rules

Back 105

a personal rule that indicates the specific process by which a task is to be accomplished