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40 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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A Problem
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A problem is defined as a state where there is a gap or barrier between where the problem solver is and where they want to be.
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Anatomy of a Problem
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Newel and Simon (1972) have conceptualized all problems as consisting of parts or components- an inital state, a goal state, and solution paths that link the inital state to the goal state.
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Solution Paths
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Methods or means for solving problems. Routes that lead from the initial state to the goal state in a problem.
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Inital State
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The starting or begining place in a problem. A problem is solved when the the problem the problem solver can find "paths" from the inital state to the goal.
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Goal State
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The desired end state in a problem. When a problem solver finds "paths" to the goal, the problem is solved.
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Problem Space
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All possible paths from the initial state to the goal state in a problem.
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GIVENS
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INFORMATION OR RULES THAT PLACE CONSTRAINTS ON THE PROBLEM
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Preparation of Familiariation Stage
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The first stage in problem solving, which includes the time spent in understanding the nature of the problem, the desired goal, and the givens.
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Production Stage
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The second stage in problem solving. During this state, the problem solver produces the solution paths that define the problem space.
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Judgment or Evaluation Stage
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The third stage in problem solving during which time the problem solver evaluates the solution paths that define the problem space.
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Incubation
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A period in problem solving when the problem solver is not activley working on the problem. Sometimes people report that a solution comes to them during this "time out" periord.
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Insight
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Sudden knowledge of a solution to a problem. Also known as the "Aha!" experience.
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Well Defined Problems
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Problems with a single correct answer.
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Ill Defined Problmes
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Problems with many possible correct answers. The difficulty with these problems lies in evaluating the possible solutions to decide which one is best. Often the goal in these problems us vague or incomplete.
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Transcontextual
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A problem-solving strategy that is useful in any context with any sort of problem.An example of transcontextual strategy is to state the goal four different ways whenever a problem is encountered
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Hierarchical Trees
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Branching diagrams that serve as a representional aid in solving problems. Instances of categories provide the "nodes" of the trees.
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Matrix
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A rectangular array of numbers that is used as a means of representing problems that contain categories of information.
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Detour Problems
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Problems in which the path to the goal is not a direct lenear one. Intermediate steps are required that seem directly opposite the goal.
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Subproblems
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When difficulty is encountered in solving a problem, it can be broken down into several smaller problems or "subproblems"
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Subgoal
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When difficulty is encountered in solving a problem, it can be broken down into sevral smaller problems called "subproblems." Each subproblem has its own goal, called a "subgoal."
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Means-Ends Analysis
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A general problem-solving strategy in which operations are used to reduce the distance between the problem solver's current state and the nerest possible subgoal or goal.
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Working Backwards
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A problem-solving strategy in which operations are planned that move from the goal to the present or initial state. This method is usually contrasted with the forward looking strategy.
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Forward-Looking Strategy
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A problem-solving strategy in which all of the planning is done by considering operations that move the problem solver closer to subgoals and the goal. This method is usually contrasted with wotking bckwards from the goal.
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Simplification
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A problem-sloving strategy in which as much of tthe complrcity as possible is removed from the problem in order to facilitate a solution.
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Generalization
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A problem-sloving strategy in which the problem is considered as an example of a larger class of problems
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Specialization
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A problem-sloving strategy in which the problem is considered as a special case drawn from a larger set of problems.
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Random Search
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A problem-sloving strategy in which all possible solution paths from the initial state to the goal are considered in an undydtematic (random) manner. This method is usually contrasted with trial and error search.
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Trial-and-Error
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A problem-sloving strategy in which all solution paths from the initial state to the goal are searched systematically. This method is usually contrasted with random search.
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Rules
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The principles that underlie some problems. For example, solutions to problems that require a prediction of the nect element in a series depend on the discovery of their rules.
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Hints
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Additional information that is given after an individual has begun to work on a problem.
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Split-Half Method
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A problem-sloving strategy that is useful when there is no a priori reason for selecting among a senquentially organized set of possible solution paths. The method consists of continually selecting a point that is half way between the present state and the goal as a systematic means for "guessing" at the sloution.
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Brainstorming
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A group or individual method for generating solution paths for problems. Problem solvers are encouraged to think up wild, imaginative solutions and to defer judgement on these solutions until a later time when they may be motified or combined> The goal is to produce a large number of possible solutions.
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Analogies
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A problem-sloving strategy in which similarities are noted between two different problems, the problem solver may discover that similar solutions are applicable.
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Personal Analogy
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A problem-solving strategy suggested by Gordan (1961) in which you think of yourself
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Direct Analogy
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A problem-sloving strategy suggested by Gordan (1961) in which you note similarties between your problem and related problems in othe domains.
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Symbolic Activity
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The deliberate use of visual imagery or other symbolic representation as a problem-solving aid.
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Fantasy Analogy
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A problem-solving strategy suggested by Gordan (1961) in which problem solvers
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Functional Fixedness
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A type of mental set in which individuals only consider the usual use (function) of objects.
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Mental Set
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Predispositions to think and respond in a certain way.
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Worldview Constraints
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Limitations on the way we approach problems placed on us by our social class, nationality, or political views.
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