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145 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What does social influence refer to? |
The ways in which people are affected by the real and imagined pressures of others. |
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What kind of process is mimicry? |
A dynamic process. |
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Define conformity. |
The tendency to change our behaviours, perceptions, and opinions in ways that are consistent with group norms. |
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What did Muzafer Sherif's research tell us about groups? |
This was the dark room, beam of light experiment where participants were asked to estimate how much a beam of light moved. Each person had differing answers (it was an optical illusion), and each member began to change their original answers to conform more to the group. (There was uncertainty.) |
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What was Solomon Asch's experiment and what did it tell us? |
The researcher asked questions to a group of confederates plus one participant. The confederates purposely gave wrong answers to see if the participant would agree with them simply because the majority of the group had a different answer. A lot of the time, participants did conform. However, when given another confederate as an "ally", the conformity rate was significantly lowered. |
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Where do we find information when physical reality is ambiguous? |
We seek information in others, which makes us more likely to conform. |
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What are the 2 different reasons for conformity? |
Informationl and normative reasons. |
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What is an informational influence? |
Influence that produces conformity when a person believes others are correct in their judgments. |
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What is normative influence? |
Influence that produces conformity when a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant. |
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What is private conformity? |
The change of beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts te position taken by others. |
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What is public conformity? |
A superficial change in overt behaviour, without a corresponding change of opinion, produced by real or imagined group pressure. |
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Who are more likely to maintain beliefs? Private or public conformers? |
Private. It is highly unlikely for public conformers to maintain the beliefs after a period of time. {Think about why} |
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What can influence the amount of conformity? |
A motivation to do well. Group size can also influence, but only to a certain point. |
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When do social norms influence us most? |
When they are brought to our attention. (The trash example where an experimenter littered right in front of the participants to promote a certain social norm, which made the participants more likely to engage in littering. |
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What can break the spell cast by unanimous majority? |
ANY dissent, even if it's just one person. |
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Define individualism. |
A cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self-reliance take priority over group allegiances. |
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Define collectivism. |
A cultural orientation in which interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony take priority over personal goals. |
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Where are conformity rates higher? |
Collectivistic countries. |
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What is a minority influence? |
The process by which dissenters produce change within a group. |
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What can increase minority influence? |
The perception of consistency. |
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What are the minority effects? |
Teaches others to think more carefully and innovatively. |
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Define compliance. |
Changes in behaviour that are elicited by direct requests. |
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What makes the word "because..." so special when it comes to compliance? |
It appears as though people are more compliant when there is a reason for their compliance (this is true even just with the appearance of a reason by people using the word 'because')! |
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What is the norm of reciprocity? |
It's a powerful rule of social behaviour that dictates that we treat others as they have treated us. |
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What is the foot-in-the-door technique? |
A 2-step compliance technique in which an influencer sets the stage for the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller request. |
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How does self-perception theory explain the reasoning behind foot-in-the-door technique? |
The theory explains that since you have alreayd seen yourself as someone willing to consent, you are urged to maintain this self-image when the 2nd request comes along. |
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What is low-balling? |
A 2-step complaince technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs. |
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What is door-in-the-face technique? |
A 2-step compliance technique in which an influencer prefaces the real request with one that is so large that it is rejected. |
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What are reciprocal concessions? |
When we feel we must reciprocate when someone lowers their ask. |
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What's the that's-not-all technique? |
A 2-step compliance technique in which the influencer begins with an inflated request, and then decreases its apparent size by offering a discount or bous. |
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Define obedience. |
Behaviour change produced by the commands of authority. |
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What 3 factors did Milgram's shock experiments find that can increase or decrease rate of obedience? |
1. The Authority- physical presence and legitimacy. 2. The Victim- situational characteristics and the victim's proximity. 3. The Procedure- whether participants were relieved of responsibility. |
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What is the social impact theory? |
The theory that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons. |
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Within social impact theory, what does strength, immediacy, and number mean? |
Strength- competency, status, ability, or relationship to target. Immediacy- proximity in time and space to target. Number- how many believers. |
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T/F: Groups can be quite different from the sum of their parts. |
True. |
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What does a group involve? |
Groups involve direct interaction among group members over a period of time and a shared fate, identity, or set of goals. |
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Define collectives. |
People engaged in common activities but having minimal direct interaction. (People at a concert together or working out beside eachother at a gym) |
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What is the social brain hypothesis? |
The unusually large size of primates' brains evolved because of their unusually complex social worlds. |
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Why might be have a biological drive to be in groups? |
-Groups are important to our social identities -Groups contribute to safety and overall success of a species (in humans at least) |
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Do groups follow uniform steps and stages to create action? |
Some do, not always. Some groups will spring into action at the last minute to get things done. |
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What are roles and norms as they relate to group members? |
Roles are an expected set of tasks for members, norms are rules of conduct for members. Can be informal or formal. |
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What is group cohesiveness? |
The extent to which forces exerted on a group push its members closer together. -There is a stronger cohesiveness within small groups rather than large ones. -Cohesiveness often becomes stronger after a win. |
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What is the Zajonc solution? |
It requires 3 steps to understand performance through pressure: 1. Presence of others creates arousal, which energizes behaviour. 2. Increased arousal enhances an individual's tendency to perform their dominant response. 3. The quality of person's performance varies according to the task. If it's easy, correct is usually the dominant response. If it's hard, incorrect is usually the dominant response. |
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Define social facilitation. |
A process whereby the presence of others enhances performances on easy tasks bu impairs performance on difficult tasks. |
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What is the mere presence theory? |
A theory holding that the mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation effects. |
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What is evaluation apprehension theory? |
A theory holding that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others are seen as potential evaluators. |
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What is distraction-conflict theory? |
A theory holding that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others distract from and create attentional conflict. |
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What is social loafing? |
A group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks where contributions are pooled. |
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What are the group-related factors that can reduce social loafing? |
When the group is: -small -expects to be punished for poor performance -cohesive and they like each other |
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What are the individual factors that can reduce social loafing? |
When the task is important or meaningful to those performing it, when the people believe their own efforts are necessary for a successful outcome, when people believing their own performance can be identified and thus evaluated, by themselves or others. |
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Define collective effort model. |
The theory that individuals will exert effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their individual efforts will be important |
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What is social compensation? |
Increasing efforts on collective tasks to compensate for anticipated social loafing or poor performance of other group members. |
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What is the sucker effect? |
No one wants to be the sucker that gets stuck with all the work while everyone else goofs off. (Performance decreases because everyone holds back.) |
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Define deindividuation. |
The loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behaviour. |
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What contributes to deindividuation? |
Arousal, anonymity, and reduced feelings of individual responsibility. |
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What are accountability cues and how do they affect people? |
Affect individual's cost-reward calculations (wearing a mask or being with many others would be counted as accountability cues as to whether someone will commit an action or not.) |
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What are attentional cues and how do they affect people? |
Focus a person's attention away from the self/act on impulse. Example: Being at a party with much stimulation and people. |
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On what platform does deindividuation happen a lot? |
Online. |
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What is the social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE)? |
A model of group behaviour that explains deindividuation effects as the result of a shift from personal identity to social identity. |
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How might SIDE affect people for better or for worse? |
It can allow people to be more responsive to needs of others (nurse example) or it can cause disregard for others if in a large group. It depends on the norms of surrounding immediate group. |
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Define process loss. |
The reduction in group performance due to obstacles created by group processes such as problems of coordination and motivation. According to Steiner, some types of group tasks are more vulnerable to process loss than others. |
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What is an additive task? |
The group product is the sum of all the members' contributions. (Making noise at a pep rally, donating to a charity.) Social loafing is more likely to occur as each member's contribution may be less than it would be if that person worked alone. |
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What is a conjunctive task? |
The group product is determined by the individual with the poorest performance (mountain climbing group). Performance of group tends to be worse than of a single person. |
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What is a disjunctive task? |
The group product is (or can be) determined by the performance of the individual with the best performance (Trying to solve a problem- MATHLETES!) |
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What is process gain? |
When the group outperforms even the best members. |
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Name the technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or others' contributions. |
Brainstorming. |
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When is brainstorming effective and not effective? |
It has been shown that brainstorming in groups can actually hinder group performance despite the widely held belief that people think brainstorming groups are more productive. Electronic brainstorming where people brainstorm on their own and contribute ideas digitally is more conducive to exceptional performance. |
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Define group polarization. |
The exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members. |
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What is the reasoning behind persuasive arguments theory that explains group polarization? |
The greater the number and persuasiveness of arguments to which group members are exposed, the more extreme their attitudes become. |
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What is the reasoning behind social comparison theory that explains group polarization? |
In group discussion, people may discover more support for their own opinion than they had orginally anticipated. This discovery sets up a new, more extreme norm and motivates group members to go beyond that norm. |
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What is the reasoning behind social catergorization that explains group polarization? |
Ingroup vs. outgroup categorizations cause members of the ingroup to want to distinguish their group from other groups, so they overestimate the extremity of their group's position and distance themselves from the position of an outgroup. |
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Define groupthink. |
A group decision-making style characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence. |
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When does groupthink emerge? |
When the need for agreement takes priority over the motivation to obtain accurate information and make appropriate decisions. |
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What 3 characteristics contribute to the development of groupthink? |
1. Highly cohesive groups make it hard to be the member to deviate and argue against the group. 2. Group structures that lack unsystematic procedures, are isolated, have similar members and a strong leader are more susceptible. 3. Stressful situations- urgency can override accuracy. |
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How can we reduce groupthink? |
To avoid isolation, groups should consult widely with outsiders. To reduce conformity pressures, leaders should explicitly encourage criticism and not take a strong stand early in the group discussion. To establish a strong norm of critical review, subgroups should separately discuss the same issue, a member should be assigned to play devil's advocate, and a "second chance" meeting should be held to reconsider the group decision before taking action. |
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Define the escalation effect. |
The condition in which commitments to a failing course of action are increased to justify investments already made. |
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Define biased sampling. |
The tendency for groups to spend more time discussing shared information (information already known by all or most group members) than unshared information (information known by only one or a few group members). |
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A shared system for remembering information that enables multiple people to remember informatin together more efficiently than they could alone. |
Transactive memory. |
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Why are "do your best" goals not particularly effective? |
Because people tend to do better on a task when they have specific, challenging, and reachable goals. |
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What are forms of "social death"? |
Being neglected, rejected, excluded, stigmatized, or ostracized. |
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What is social anxiety? |
Intense feelings of discomfort in situations that invite public scrutiny. |
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What are people with close social ties associated with? (Think personal characteristics) |
Higher levels of self-esteem and happiness. |
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The desire to establish and maintain many rewarding interpersonal relationships. |
Need for affiliation. |
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What is the idea of a socio-stat? |
A built-in thermometer that lets you know when to seek social contact and when to be alone. |
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Why would people want to be around others in fearful stress situations, but prefer to be alone in embarassing stress situations? |
Because it would be more beneficial to see how others are reacting to fearful situations(cognitive clarity). But being with someone else during an embarrassing event would increase stress. |
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A feeling of deprivation about existing social relations. |
Loneliness.
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What is the single best predictor of whether 2 people will get together? |
Proximity. |
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The phenomenon whereby the more often people are exposed to a stimulus, the more positively they evaluate that stimulus. |
Mere exposure effect. |
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How does familiarity affect our interactions? |
It makes us like the people more. |
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Why do people prefer "averaging" of faces? |
The familiarity concept! |
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Why are babies considered part of the argument for objective forms of beauty?
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Because babies stare longer at attractive faces than at unattractive ones. |
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When average-looking men and women are seen alongside someone else of the same sex, they are rated as _________ attractive when they other person is good looking, and ________ attractive when he or she is plain-looking. |
More, less. |
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The belief that physically attractive individuals also possess desirable personality characteristics. |
What-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype. |
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What does the self-fulfilling prophecy have to do with attraction? |
It is often that we will create the ideals of how we think someone who is attractive is, and then our beliefs will be sustained (created). |
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Why is beauty considered a blessing and a curse? |
-Attractive people are often wary of someone's praise or kind actions-- wondering if it is only because of their looks. -Social pressure to maintain one's appearance. -Eating disorders, obession with slenderness. |
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What is meant by "birds of a feather flock together"? |
Similarity breeds attraction. |
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What is another explanation for attraction that argues against the similarity reasoning? |
David Lykken and Auke Tellegen hypothesized that people aren't attracted to similar others, they are repulsed by dissimilar others. Once we have discarded the 50% of people who are dissimilar, a random selection process takes over. |
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What did Donn Brynne add to this hypothesis? (Two-stage model of attraction process) |
That we first cut out all the weirdos, then find the most similar to ourselves from what's left over. |
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The proposition that people are attracted to others who are similar in physical attractiveness. |
Matching hypothesis. |
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What is "I-sharing"? |
An experience that two people share (a subjective experience) such as an eye-roll, laugh, shake their heads, cheering, etc. |
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T/F: People seek others whose needs "oppose" their own. |
False. There is actually no evidence to support that opposites attract. |
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A mutual exchange between what we give and what we receive--- for example, liking those who like us. |
Reciprocity. |
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What is an interesting factor that contributes to you liking someone? |
The realization that you are liked by them. |
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T/F: People like others more when their affection takes time to earn than when it comes easily. |
True! |
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What is the hard-to-get effect? |
The tendency to prefer people who are highly selective in their social choices over those who are more readiy available. |
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What does secrecy have to do with attraction? |
Having a "secret" relationship can up the passion factor! (More exciting, exhilarating.To a certain extent). |
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What is psychological reactance? |
People are motivated to protect their freedom to choose and behave as they please. |
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What is jealousy? |
A negative emotional state that arises from a perceived threat to one's relationship. |
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Men are more upset by sexual infidelity and women are more upset by emotional infidelity. Why is this? |
Because of the evolutionary theory explaining that men want to sow their seed and women want to be provided for. |
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Why is the evolutionry perspective seen as inaccurate? |
Some women are encouraged to be promiscuous in other cultures because of their beliefs about fatherhood. (The perspective is thus non-universal). Also both women and men are more concerned about emotional infidelity because it also just assumes there has been some sexual infedelity. |
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A close relationship between two adults involving emotional attachment, fulfillment of psychological needs, or interdependence. |
Intimate relationship. |
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What is Bernard Murstein's stimulus-value role theory? |
Three stages: (1) the stimulus stage, attraction is sparked by external attributes, (2) the value stage, attachment is based on similarity of values and beliefs, (3) the role stage, commitment is based on the performance of such roles as husband and wife. |
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How is love like attraction? |
It depends on the experience of positive emotions in the presence of a partner. |
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T/F: Relationships tend to follow a sequence of stages. |
False. Reserachers don't think so, they believe that they can enter different stages in non-sequential order. |
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A perspective that views people as motivated to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships with others. |
Social exchange theory. |
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What is meant by the term comparison level? |
Refers to the average expected outcome in relationships. Even a bad relationship can look pretty good to someone with a low CL. |
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What is meant by the term comparison level of alternatives? |
Refers to people's expectations about what they would receive in an alternate situation. |
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What does self-esteem have to do with happy relationships? |
People with high self esteem will focus on the benefits rather than the costs of being with someone (commitment insurance). People with low self-esteem will focus on the costs in order to not get too attached, which effectively undermines the relationship. |
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How does investment in the relationship influence us? |
An investment is something a person puts into a relationship that he or she cannot recover if the relationship ends. People are more likely to stay if they are invested. |
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Commitment is influential how? |
Commitment levels predict how long relationships last. Committed individuals who see their partners as mutually committed last the longest. |
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The theory that people are most satisfied with a relationship when the ratio between benefits and contributions is similar for both partners. |
Equity theory. |
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What are the relational building blocks? |
Rewards - Costs - CL --------> Satisfaction - CLalt - Investments------> ------> Determines commitment. |
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What is the underbenefitted and overbenefitted? |
In equity theory, underbenefited partners are putting in more effort, and not getting as much benefit as the other partner. They usually feel resentful, angry. Overbenefiters are profiting unfairly, and often feel guilty. Research shows that overbenefiters is still the preferred plae to be. |
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What is a "trust-insurance" system? |
The idea that people in relationships naturally and unconsciously maintain a balance by which they keep a tally of costs and benefits in order to detect and then repair possible imbalances. |
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A relationship in which the participants expect and dsire strict reciprocity in their interactions. |
Exchange relationship. More likely in acquaintances, strangers, and business relationships. |
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A relationship in which the particpants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other's needs. |
Communal relationship. More likely in close friends, partners, and family. |
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The way a person typically interacts with significant others. |
Attachment style. Secure, avoidant, and anxious. |
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How many kinds of love are there? |
216! |
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What is the triangular theory of love? |
A theory proposing that loves has three basic components-- intimacy, passion, and commitment-- which can be combined to produce eight subtypes. |
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Romantic love characterized by high arousal,intense attraction, and fear of rejection. |
Passionate love. |
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A secure, trusting, stable partnership. |
Companionate love. |
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Based on the 2-factor theory of emotion, what is needed for passionate love? |
The physiological arousal, and the belief that someone caused this arousal. |
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What is excitation transfer? |
The process whereby arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus, and the combined arousal is attributed to the second stimulus. |
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What is an example of excitation transfer? |
Dancing at a club and having a good time and then meeting someone there who you are having a good time with. The good time feelings from dancing could be attributed to this new person. |
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Revelations about the self that a person makes to others. |
Self-disclosure. |
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What is interesting about self-disclosure? |
We like the people we have disclosed to, we disclose to people we like, and we like peopl who disclose to us. |
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What is social penetration theory? |
Relationships progress from superficial exchanges to more intimate ones. As the relationship develops, the topics of exchanges become broader and deeper. |
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How does social depenetration theory look? |
A long thin dagger, breadth decreases but depth stays! Although some couples in distress remove both depth and breadth. |
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What are the three factors of passionate love according to Prof's notes on Berscheid and Walster? |
1) Arousal (heightned state of physiological arousal) 2) Linking arousal to love (a belief usually through social learning) 3) Belief that the arousal was caused by someone (a beloved) |
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What are the differences between avoidant, anxious, and secure? |
Secure feels comfortable getting close to others. Avoidant would rather avoid a relationship and does not feel comfortable being close to others. (Fearful avoidant and dismissive avoidant) Anxious is always worried whether their partner likes them or not, feels that they love their partner more than they love them. |
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What are relationship-enhancing attributions? |
They see the partner's undesirable behaviours as caused by factors that are situational ("a bad day"), temporary, and limited in scope. |
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What are distress-maintaining attributions? |
While happy couples minimize the bad and maximize the good, unhappy couples do the opposite. (He's late because he's disrespectful, rude, inconsiderate vs. must've been the traffic!) |
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What is the negative affect reciprocity? |
A tit-for-tat exchange of expressions of negative feelings. Positive things are overlooked, and couples can't make it out of their hell hole of negative reactions to each other. |
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What is the demand/withdraw interaction pattern? |
Men and women react differently to conflict. "Warm up" vs. "calm down". Wife demands to discuss the relationship problems, only to become frustrated when her husband withdraws from such discussions. |
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How to reduce negative effects of conflict? |
Search for other ways to reward eachother outside the conflict, and try to see from other's point of view. (Also, admitting there is a communication problem.) |
