Psyc 215 Definitions

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A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals

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conflict

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a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behaviour

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social trap

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games in which outcomes need not sum to zero; with cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose

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Non-zero-sum games

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a condition in which the outcomes people perceive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it

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equity

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the equal distribution of rewards to all individuals

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equality

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the distribution of rewards based on need for those rewards

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needs-based distribution

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an attempt by a third party to resolve a conflict by facilitation communication and offering suggestions

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mediation

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seeking an agreement through direct negotiation between parties to a conflict

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bargaining

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resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement

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arbitration

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win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefits

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integrative agreements

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process needed when tension and suspicion run so high that communication becomes all but impossible

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concilation

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a motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's own self interests

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altruism

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the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs

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social exchange theory

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a motive (supposedly underlying all behaviour) to increase one's own welfare

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egoism

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an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

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reciprocity norm

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an expectation that people will help those dependent on them

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social responsibility norm

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the idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes

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kin selection

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the vicarious experience of another's feeling; putting oneself in another's shoes

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empathy

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the finding that a person is less likely to supply help when there are other bystanders

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bystander effect

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a strategy for gaining concession. After someone first turns down a large request, the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request

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door in the face technique

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the perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness

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moral exclusion

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the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their action as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing

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overjustification effect

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tendency to overestimate others' ability to read our internal states

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illusion of transparency

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ignorance that others are thinking and feeling what we are

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pluralistic ignorance

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a change in behaviour or belief to accord with others

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conformity

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conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with social pressure while privately disagreeing

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compliance

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acting in accord with a direct order

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obedience

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conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure

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acceptance

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self (auto) motion (kinetic) - the apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark

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autokinetic phenomenon

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a "we" feeling - the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction for one another

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cohesiveness

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conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance

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normative influence

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conformity that results from accepting evidence about reality provided by other people

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informational influence

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a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom

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reactance

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activating particular associations in memory

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priming

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if we go around talking about others being gossipy, people may unconsciously associate 'gossipy' with us

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spontaneous trait transference

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persistence of one's initial conceptions as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives

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belief perseverance

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incorporating 'misinformation' into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misinformation about it

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misinformation effect

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the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs

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overconfidence phenomenon

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a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

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confirmation bias

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a thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments

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heuristics

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the tendency to presume, despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if it resembles a particular member

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representative heuristic

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a cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory (if it comes to mind readily we consider it commonplace)

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availability heuristic

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imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened but didn't

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counterfactual thinking

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perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

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illusory correlation

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perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are

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illusion of control

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the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behaviour to return towards one's average

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regression toward the average

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mistakenly attributing a behaviour to the wrong cause

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misattribution

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theory of how people explain other's behaviour

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attribution theory

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attributing behaviour to the person's disposition and traits

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dispositional attribution

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attributing behaviour to the environment

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situational attribution

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the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences on other's behaviour

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fundamental attribution error

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a conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. Makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions

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self awareness

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a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to act in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations

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behavioural confirmation

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a person's answer to the question, "Who am I?"

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self concept

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explicit thinking that is deliberative, reflective, conscious

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controlled thinking

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implicit thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness, roughly corresponds to "intuition"

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automatic thinking

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list factors influencing the self

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self concept
self esteem
social self
self knowledge

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overestimating the enduring impact of emotion causing events

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impact bias

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differing implicit and explicit attitudes toward the same object

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dual attitudes

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evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself to others

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social comparison

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a person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self worth

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self esteem

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the "we" aspect of our self concept, the part of our answer to "who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

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social identity

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beliefs about the self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information

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self schema

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the tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself

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self reference effect

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images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future

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possible selves

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the hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events

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learned helplessness

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the tendency to perceive oneself favourably

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self-serving bias

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a form of self-serving bias that is the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors

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self-serving attributions

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the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviours

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false consensus effect

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the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviours

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false uniqueness effect

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a comparison between how the self is viewed now and how the self was viewed in the past or how the self is expected to be viewed in the future

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temporal comparison

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protecting one's self image with behaviours that create a handy excuse for later failure

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self-handicapping

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the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create favourable impression or an impression that corresponds to one ideals

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self presentation

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being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression

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self monitoring

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two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as "us"

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group

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a group of people working simultaneously and individually on a noncompetitive task

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coactors

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the strengthening of dominant responses owing to the presence of others

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social facilitation

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concern for how others are evaluating us

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evaluation apprehension

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the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable

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social loafing

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people who benefit from the group but give little in return

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freeriders

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loss of awareness and evaluation apprehension, occurs in group situations that foster anonymity and draw attention away from the individual

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deindividuated

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group produced enhancement of members' pre-existing tendencies; a strengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within the group

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group polarization

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evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself to others

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social comparison

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a false impression of how other people are thinking, feeling, or responding

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pluralistic ignorance

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the mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action

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groupthink

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the process by which certain group members motivate and guide the group

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leadership

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a tendency for people with minority views to express them less quickly than people in the majority

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minority slowness effect

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the study of evolution of behaviour using principles of natural selection

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evolutionary psychology

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rules for accepted and expected behaviour

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norms

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a shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another

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superordinate goals

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physical or verbal behaviour intended to hurt someone

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aggression

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aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself

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hostile aggression

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aggression that is a means to some other end

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instrumental aggression

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the theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress

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frustration-aggression theory

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the blocking of goal directed behaviour

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frustration

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the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration - usually a more socially acceptable target

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displacement

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the perception that one is less well off than others to whom one compares oneself

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relative deprivation

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the theory that we learn social behaviour by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished

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social learning theory

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emotional release

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catharsis

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a motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions

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need to belong

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geographical nearness

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proximity

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how often people's paths cross

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function distance

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the tendency for novel stimulii to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them

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mere exposure effect

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the tendency for men and women to choose partners who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits

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matching phenomenon

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what is beautiful is good - presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well

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physical attractiveness stereotype

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the popular supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other

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complementarity

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the use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favour

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ingratiation

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those who reward us, or whom we associate with rewards, we like

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reward theory of attraction

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arousal X its label = emotion

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two factor theory of emotion

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state of intense longing for union with another

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passionate love

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the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply entwined

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companionate love

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attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy

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secure attachment

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attachments marked by a sense of one's own unworthiness and anxiety, ambivalence, and possessiveness

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preoccupied attachment

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an avoidant relationship style marked by distrust in others

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dismissive attachment

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an avoidant relationship style marked by a fear of rejection

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fearful attachment

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a condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it

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equity

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revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

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self-disclosure

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tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner

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disclosure reciprocity