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210 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what are the 7 themes of psychological science?
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1. psychology is an empirical science.
2. nature and nurture are inextricably entwined 3. the brain and mind are inseparable 4. a new biological revolution is energizing research 5. the mind is adaptive 6. psychological science crosses levels of analysis 7. we often are unaware of the multiple influences on how we think, feel, and act |
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evolutionary theory
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emphasizes the inherited adaptive value of behaviour and mental activity throughout the history of a species
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adaptations
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the physical characteristics, skills, or abilities that increase the chances of reproduction or survival and are therefore likely to be passed along to future generations
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natural selection
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darwin's theory that those who inheit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do not
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when where and with whom did psychology as a science start?
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1879, leipzig, germany & wilhelm wundt
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introspection
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a systematic examination of subjecive mental experiences that requires people to report ont he content of their thoughts
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structuralism
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an approach to psychology based on the idea that conscious experiences can be broken down into its basic underlying components or elements
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who identified stream of consciousness?
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william james
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functionalism
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concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function of mind and behaviour, not it's structure
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what is the gestalt theory and who were the two scientists responsible for it?
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the idea that the whole of personal experience is different from simply the sum of its constituent elements. max wertheimer and wolfgang kohler
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behaviorism
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a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of enviornmental forces in producing behaviour. behaviour is changed by its consequences
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cognitive psychology
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the study of how people think, learn, and remember [george a. miller]
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cognitive neuroscience
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study of the neural mencahnisms that underlie thought, learning, and memory
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skinner and watson are responsible for which school of thought?
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behaviorism
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which two scientists re responsible for the structuralism school of thought?
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wundt and titchener
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what is the order of the scientific method?
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theory- hypothesis- research- support or refute hypothesis- further inquiry
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what are the 3 types of studies?
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1. descriptive
2. correlational 3. experimental |
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explain the 2 types of descriptive studies
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1. naturalistic observation- a passive descriptive study in which observers don't changer or alter ongoing behaviour
2. participant observation- researcher is actively involved int he situation |
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what are the advantages and disadvantages of descriptive studies?
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advantages- good in early states of experiment when trying to determine whether a phenomenon exists and it's in real life settings.
disadvantages- errors in observation [observer bias] and behavioural changes when observations are known |
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what are the differences between longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies?
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longitudeinal- involve observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in the same people over time, either with no intervention by the wbserver or with intervention by the observer.
cross-sectional- comparing different groups to make inferences about both |
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what is a correlational study and what are some disadvantages?
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a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in real life settings without an attempt by the researcher to alter them.
disadvantages- can't be used to support causal relationships, n don't know cause- effect relationships between variables |
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what's the difference between a population and a sample?
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a population is everyone in the group the experiment is interested in and a sample is a subset of a population. and the group that is actually used int he experiment
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explain the hawthorne effect.
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refers to changes in behaviour that occur when people know that others are observing them
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what are 3 things response performance measures?
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1. reaction time
2. response accuracy 3. stimulus judgments |
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what are 3 ways the body and brain can be measured directly?
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1. electrophysiology [eeg]
2. brain imaging [pet, mri, fmri] 3. transcrainal magnetic stimulation |
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what's the difference between genotype and phenotype?
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genotype- the genetic constitution determined at the moment of conception
phenotype- observable physical characteristics that result from both genetic and environmental influences |
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what are the 2 methods to assess teh degree to which traits are inherited?
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1. twin studies- compare similarities b/w different types of twins to determine the genetic basis of specific traits
2. adoption studies- compare the similarities b/w biological relatives and adoptive relatives |
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what is the basic unit of the nervous system; operates through electrical impulses which communicate wtih other neurons through chemical signals; receive, integrate and transmit info in the nervous system?
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neurons
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what are the 3 types of neurons and what do they do?
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1. sensory or afferent neurons- detect info from physical world and that info along to the brain via spinal cord
2. motor or efferent neurons- direct muscles to contract or relax thereby producing movement 3. interneurons- communicate only with other neurons, typically within a specific brain region [local or short-distance circuits] |
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what are the 4 structural regions that participate in the neuron's communication functions?
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1. dendrites- branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect info from other neurons
2. cell body- where info from 1000s of other neurons is collected and processed 3. axon- a long narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which info is transmitted to other neurons 4. terminal buttons- small nodules at the ends of axons that release chemical signals from the neuron to the synapse |
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where is the site for chemical communication between neurons which contains extracellular fluid?
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synapse
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what acts as the neuron's boundary and also helps wtih communication b/w neurons by regulating concentraion of electrically charged molecules that are the basis of the neuron's electrical activity?
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neuron's membrane
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what's the fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates the axon and allows for the rapid movement of electrical impulses along the axon?
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myelin sheath
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what are the small gaps of exposed axon, between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials are transmitted?
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nodes of Ranvier
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what is the charge of the resting membrane potential?
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negative
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what are 2 types of ions that contribute to a neuron's resting membrane potential?
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sodium & potassium ions
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the inside of the neuron has more of which ion?
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potassium
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what are 2 types of signals which work by affecting polarization by arriving at the dendrites by the 1000s and what do they do?
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1. excitatory- depolarize the cell membrane to increase likelihood the neuron will fire
2. inhibitory- signals hyperpolarize the cell and decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire |
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when a neuron fires what rushes into the neuron making the neuron more positively charged on the inside?
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sodium ions
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neuron that sends the signal
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presynaptic
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neuron that receives the signal
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postsynaptic
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where's the site of chemical communication?
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synaptic cleft
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what's the chemical substance that carries signals from one neuron to another and resides inside each terminal button?
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neurotransmitter
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what are the 3 major events that terminate the transmitters' influence in the synaptic cleft and what do they do?
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1. reuptake- the process whereby a neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping activity
2. enzyme deactivation- occurs when an enzyme destroys the transmitter substance in the synaptic cleft 3. autoreception- monitor how much neurotransmitter has been released into the synapse. then excess is detected. the autoreceptors signa the presynaptic neuron to stop releasing the neurotransmitter |
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angy drug that enhances the actions of a specific neurotransmitter. can increase the release of neurotransmitters, block the reuptake of neurotransmitters, mimic a particular neurotranmistter, binding to postsynaptic receptors and either activating them or increasing the neurotransmitter's effects is?
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agonist
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any drug that inhibits the action of a specific neurotramitter/ block the release of neurotrasmitters/ destroy neurotransmitters in the synapse/ mimic a particular neurotransmitter binding to postsynpatic receptors enough to block neurotransmitter binding
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antagonist
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neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles. involved in mental processes such as learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming
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acetylocholine [ACh]
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responsible for adrenaline rushes, bursts of energy caused by its release throughout the body. energy
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epinephrine
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states of arousal and awareness & vigilance
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norepinephrine
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a monoamine neurotransmitter important for a wide range of psychological activity, including emotional states, impulse control, and dreaming, impulsiveness
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serotonin
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a monoamine neurotransmitter in the nervous system involved in reward, motivation, and motor control over voluntary movement
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dopamine
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primary inhibitory transmitter in the nervous system. inhibition of action potentials/ anxiety and intoxication
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GABA
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primary excitatory transmitter in nervous system. pain reduction/ reward
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endorphins
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neurotransmitter: pain perception/ mood and anxiety
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substance p
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what are the 2 basic brain structures adn their functions?
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1. central nervous system- brain & spinal cord
2. peripheral nervous system- all nerve cells in the body that aren't part of the central nervous system, includes somatic and autonomic nervous systems |
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what's the left frontal region of the brain crucial for the production of language?
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broca's area
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what is the section of the bottom of the brain, housing the most basic programs of survival such as breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination, & orgams consisting of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain?
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brainstem
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area of the brain involving emotion
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amygdala
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area of the brain involving movement & reward
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basal ganglia
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area of the brain involving survival
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brainstem
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area of the brain involving motor function. coordinated movement & balance
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cerebellum
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area of the brain involving thought and planning?
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cerebral cortex
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area of the brain involving memory
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hippocampus
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area of the brain involving regulating body function, temperature regulation, emotion, sexual behaviour, and motivation
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hypothalamus
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area of the brain involving sleep and arousal
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reticular formation
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area of the brain involving the sensory gateway
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thalamus
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system of subcortical structures that are important for the initation of planned movement
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basal ganglia
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outer layer of brain tissue which forms the convoluted surface of the brain and is the site of all thoughts, detailed perceptions, consciousness, culture & communication, how we understand other people, follow rules, perform complex behaviours, and think before we act
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cerebral cortex
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what are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex and what do they do?
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1. occiptal- at the back. important for vision
2. parietyal- important for the sense of tough adn of the spaial layout of an environment 3. temporal- important for processing auditory info and for memory 4. frontal- planning and movement |
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a region of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behaviour, and personality
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prefrontal cortex
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what are the 2 primary components of Peripheral Nervous System?
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1. somatic nervous system - it transmits sensory signals to the CNS via nerves
2. autonomic nervous system- regulates the body's internal environment by stimulatingglands and by maintaining internal organs such as the heart, gall bladder, and stomach |
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what are the 2 types of signals that travel from the cns to organs and glands in pns?
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1. sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system- prepares the body for action
2. parasympathetic division of ans- returns the body to its resting state |
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how does the endocrine system communicate?
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through hormones
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communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviours, and actions
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endocrine system
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chemical substances, typically released fromt he endocrine gladns that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues, which are subsequently influenced by hormones
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hormones
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a property of the brain that allos it to change as a result of experience, drugs, or injury
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plasticity
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an estimate of how much of the variation in a characteristic is due to known genetic variation
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heritability
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in considering a human characteristic, we could say that the provides the options adn the determines which option is taken
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genome; environment
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personality is most likely a trait
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polygenic
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to determine whether genetics or evnironment has a greater influence on intelligence one technique is:
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monozygotic twins reared apart
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in general a signal travels through a neuron in which of the following orders?
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dendrite, soma, axon, terminal buttons
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when jon burned his finger on the stove, neurons carried the message to the spinal cord and neurons instructed the muscles in his arm to retract from the flame
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afferent; efferent
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why are the nodes of ranvier important structures for neural firing?L
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they are areas along the axon that speed transmission
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where is sodium most likely to be found within the central nervous system?
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more likely outside the neuron than inside
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neurotransmitters affect the behaviour of a cell because they
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bind to the postsynaptic receptor and produce changes on the neuron cell wall, creating a cascade of further changes
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as andre came into the room in he noticed that his heart rate increased due to his as he settled into the test and was able to correctly answer the questions he calmed down. due to the
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smpathetic systems; parasympathetic system
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the amygdala plays an important role in , while the hippocampus plays an important role in .
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fear or emotional reactions; spatial memory
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hormones: ::neurotransmitters:
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endocrine system; nervous system
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the sense organs' responses to external stimuli and the transmission of these responses to the brain
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sensation
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the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals; it results in an internal representation of the stimulus
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perception
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process by which sensory receptors produce neural impulses when they receive physical or chemical stimulation
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transduction
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in taste [gustation] what detects chemicals?
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taste buds
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what are the 5 basic tastes?
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sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami
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in smell what gathers odorants?
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nasal cavity?
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the sense of smell, which occurs when receptors in the nose respond to chemicals
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olfaction
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in touch, sensors in skin detect what 3 things?
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pressure, temperature, and pain
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what is the sense of touch?
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haptic sense
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states that for us to experience pain, pain receptors must be activated and a "neural gate" in the spinal cord must allow the signals through to the brain
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gate control theory of pain
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in hearing the ear detects what?
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sound waves
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sense of sound perception
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audition
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the pattern of the changes in air pressure through time that results in the percept of a sound
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sound wave
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in vision, the eye detects what?
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light waves
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the retina has 2 types of receptor cells:
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1. rods- retinal cells that respond to low levels of illumination and resultin in black and white perception
2. cones- retinal cells taht respond to higher levels of illumination and result in colour percetion |
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initiate the transduction of light waves into electrical neural impulses
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photopigments
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the center of the retina where cones are densely packed
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fovea
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where does colour vision take place>
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colour vision is caused by cones in the center of the retina
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perception of our limbs in space
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kinesthetic sense
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perception of balance
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vestibular senses
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where to auditory neurons in the thalamus extend their axons to?
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primary auditory cortex in temporal lobe
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where is info from thalamus projected to in touch?
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primary somatosensory cortex in parietal lobe
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where is the primary visual cortex?
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occipital lobe
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closer 2 figures are to each other, more likely we are to group them and see them as part of the same object
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principle of proximity
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tendency to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other, whether in shape, colour or orientation
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principle of similarity
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tendency to interpret intersecting lines as continuous rather than as changing direction radically
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good continuation
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tend to complete figures even when gaps exist
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closure
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tend to perceive contours even when they dont' exist
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illusory contours
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hierarchical model of patter recognition in which data are relayed from one processing level to the next, always moving to a higher level of processing [sensory]
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bottom-up processing
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info at higher levels of processing can influence lower 'earlier' levels inthe proecssing hierarchy [expectations about what we will perceive]
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top-down processing
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2 people for functionalism
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dewey and james
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3 people for cognitive
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kohler, miller, tohlman
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1 person for social
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lewin
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frequency of the sound will determine the- and the amplitude will determine the of the perceived musical note
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pitch; loudness
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as sun goes down the colours become less bright and finally all become shades of gray because
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rods are taking over for the cones
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read a clock in the dim light. more likely to read the time if he looks at the clock with his---- bc it has the largest number of---
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fovea; cones
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master chefs are likely to have---
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latrger number of taste buds
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point of light in front of him is gradually made more intense. what's being tested
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absolute threshold
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adaptive standpoitn- disproportionate area of the cortex devoted to vision suggests that our visual system---- than our other senses
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facilitated survival more greatly
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look! what part ofyour processing stream allows you to locate the dolphin?
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dorsal stream
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ppl see ( ) as oval which gestalt principle?
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closure
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when moon is high in the sky it will appear === when it is close to the horizon
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smaller than
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bushes at side of road appear to be passing very quickly. distant tree takes long time to pass. what depth cue is causing this speed discrepancy?
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motion parallax
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animation is made possible by
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stroboscopic movement
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pain medications work by:
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blocking transmission from sensory pain neurons to the brain
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enduring change in behaviour
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learning
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process in which environmental stimuli and behavioural responses become connected
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conditioning
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type of learned response that occurs when a neutral object comes to elicit a refelxive response when it is associated with a wtimulus that already produces that response
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classical or pavlovian conditioning
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learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future
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operant conditioning
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infants are born knowning nothing and all knowledge is acquired
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tabula rasa "blank slate"
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a response that doesn't have to be learned, such as a reflex [salivation elicted by food]
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unconditioned response
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a stimulus that elicits a response such as a reflext without any prior learning [food]
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unconditioned stimulus
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a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place [ringing bell produces salivation only after training]
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conditioned stimulus
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a response that has been learned [salivary reflex that occurs when only the conditioned stimulus is present [bell]
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conditioned response
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gradual formation of an association b/w conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
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acquisition
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a process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated w/o the unconditioned stimulus
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process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges following presentation of the conditioned stimulus
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cognitivie model of classical conditioning; it states that the strength of the cs-us association is determined by the extent to which the unconditioned stimulus is expected
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rescoria- wagner model
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any behaviour leading to a satisfying state of affairs will more likely occur again. any behaviour leading to an unsatisfying state of affairs probably won't occur again
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law of effect
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stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated
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reinforcer
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a process of operant condiditon; it inovlves reinforcing behaviours that are increasingly similar to the desired behaviour
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shaping
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increase in probability of a behaviour's being repeated following the administration of a stimulus
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positive reinforcement
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the increase in the probability of a behaviour's being repeated through the removal of a stimulus
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negative reinforcement
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punishment that occurs wtih the administration of a stimulus and thus decreases the probability of a behaviour's recurring
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positive punishment
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punishment that occurs with the removal of a stimulus adn thus decreased the probabiltity of a beahaviour's recurring
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negative punisihment
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a schedule in which reinforcement is based on the number of times the behaviour occurs
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ratio schedule
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schedule in which reinforcement is available after a specific unit of time
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interval schedle
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a schedule in which reinforcement is consistenly provided upon each occurrence
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fixed schedule
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a schedule in wchihc reinforcement is applied at different rates or at different times
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variable schedule
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the greater persistence of behaviour under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement [learner needs to repeat behaviour bc it's only rewarded some of the time]
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partial-reinforcement extinction effect
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learning that takes place in the absense of reinforcement
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latent learning
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who performed with observation that young kids watching video that was violent with a doll, played violently with the doll
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bandura
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learning that occurs when people learn the consequences of an action by observing others being rewarded or punished for performing the action
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vicarious learning
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neurons that are activated during observation of the performing action
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mirror neurons
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which neurotransmitter activity underlies reinforcement?
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dopamine
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a decrease in behavioural response following repeated exposure to nonthreatening stimuli
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habituation
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increase in beavhioural response following exposure to a threatening stimulus
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sensitization
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the strenghening of a synpatic connection so that postsynpatic neurons are more easily activated
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long-term potentiation
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process info from different visual features at thes same time by focusing on targets over distractors
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parallel processing
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common failure to notice large changes in environments
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change blindness
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what are the 4 basic stages of memory?
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1. encoding- processing info so that it can be stored
2.storage- retention of encoded representations over time that correspond to some change in the nervous system that registers the event 3. retrieval- act of recalling or remembering stored info to use it 4. modal memory model- 3 stage memory system that involves sensory memory, short term and long term |
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info stored briefly close to its original sensory form
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sensory memory
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limited capacity memory system that holds info in awareness for brief period
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short-term memory
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active processing system that keeps different types of info available for current use
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working memory
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organizing info into meaningful units to make it easier to remember
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chunking
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what are the 4 parts of working memory?
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1. central executive
2. phonological loop 3. visuospatial sketchpage 4. episodic buffer |
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relatively permanent storage of info
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long term memory
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2 distinguishing factors between long term memory and working memory
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duration and capacity
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ability to recall items from a list depends on order of presentation wtih items presented early or late in the list remembered better than those in the middle
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serial position effect
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neural structure responsible for releasing dopamine in response to reinforcement is:
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nucleus accumbens
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according to watson's view, which isn't necessarily considered accurate today, what is the only valid indicator of psychological activity and why?
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overt behaviour- bc it alone can be studied sing scientific method
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if you trained a rat to fear a flashing light by pairing it wtih a painful electric shock,what would be your cs?
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flashing light
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imitation learning is facilitated by special brain structures known as
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mirror neurons
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long-term potentiation has also been demonstrated to function outside the hippocampus what brain structure uses ltp for fear-specific learnign?
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amygdala
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what type of reward schedule extinguishes the fastes?
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continuous reinforcement
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what is the term that describes how wild animals vary their behaviour, and thus also vary their reinforcement?
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optimal foraging
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primary reinforcers:
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satisfy biological needs
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learning that takes place int eh absence of reinforcement or punishment is known as
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latent learning
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what evidence suggests that the nmda receptor is responsible for associative learning?
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only multiple neurons firing simultaneously can activate the nmda receptor
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while reading, info from last eye fixations is held in
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iconic memory
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memory enhancement that occurs when the situations during encoding and recall match is call ---- memory; the memory enhancement that occurs when the internal states during encoding and recall match is called---- memory
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context dependent; state dependent
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amygdala and hippocampus are located in which part of the brain?
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medial temporal lobe
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most forms of amnesis are caused by damage to teh ----- but korsakoff's syndrome is a form of amnesia caused by damange to the ----
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medial temporal lobes; thalamus
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method of thinking most common in daily life
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inductive reasoning
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system underlying unconscious memories
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implicit memory
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processes involved when people remember specific info
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explicit memory
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cognitive info retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge to be declared
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declarative memory
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type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioural habits
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procedural memory
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remembering to do something at some time in teh future
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prospective memory
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a hypothetical cognitive structure that helps us perceive, organize, process and use info in long term memory
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schemas
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anything that helps a person recall info from memory
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retrieval cue
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which brain section is important for consolidation of declarative memories?
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medial temporal lobes [amygdala and hippocampus
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7 sins of memory
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1. transience- reduced memory over time
2. absentmindedness- reduced memory due to failing to pay attention 3. blocking- inability to remember needed info 4. misattribution- assigning a memory to the wrong source 5. suggestibility- altering a memory bc of misleading info 6. bias- influence of current knowledge on our memories for past events 7. persistence- resurgence of unwated or distrubing memores that we would like to forget |
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think you've come up with new idea but really retrieved an olde ideam from memory and failed to attribute to idea to proper source
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cryptomnesia
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false recollection of episodic memory
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confabulation
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which neurotransmitter enhances memory
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epinephrine
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mental rep that has some of the hpysical characteristics of an object
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analogical rep
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an abstract mental rep that doesn't correspond to the physical feature of an object or idea
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symbolic rep
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idea that a concept is characterized by a list of features that are necessary to determine if an object is a member of the category
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defnining attribute model
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human ability to use knowledge, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges
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intelligence
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idea that one general factor undlerlies all mental activiites
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general intelligence [g]
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info processing innovel or complex circumstances [reasoning, drawing analogies, thinking quickly and flexibily, nonverbal]
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fluid intelligence
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knowledge acquired throught experience and the ability to use that knowledge [vocab, culture info, ability to use knowledge to solve probs]
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crystallized intelligence
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