Psyao2 - Chapter Thirteen

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JoeDarby

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handedover pictures of US militants torturing Iraqi prisoners in Abu Ghraib and nowhis family and he are in protective custody

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PhilipZimbardo

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asocial psychologist believes tragedy of Abu Ghraib was a failure of wholesystem as there was lack of supervision of guard’s treatment over detainees,constant threat from terrorists, danger and stress on soldiers, language andcultural barriers that makes the “Us vs. Them “ thinking, changes made to whatis acceptable methods of interrogation, strong pressure from officials to getresults

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KurtLewin

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(grandfatherof social psychology) studied interaction between person and situation

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B=f(PE)

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Behaviour is a function ofthe person and environment

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Socialpsychology

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focuseson present moment, situation person happens to be in at a particular time is akey influence on behaviour

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Mimicry

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takingon for ourselves the behaviours, emotional displays, and facial expressions ofothers

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Chameleon effect

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describeshow people mimic other non-consciously, automatically copying others’ behavioureven without realizing it (e.g. laughing when others laugh, whispering)

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Social norms

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(usuallyunwritten) guidelines for how to behave in social contexts (e.g. manners, howmuch we eat/drink, what we wear)

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Social loafing

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occurs when an individual puts less effortinto working on a task with others (slacking coasting, free-riding) in bothphysical activities, cognitive activities, and creativity

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Low efficacy belief

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Ifthe task is too difficult or too complex, people do not know where to start. Itcan be overcome by structuring tasks so people know what to do, settingdeadlines, and giving feedback on how they can improve

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Believing that one’scontributions are not important to the group

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Thisoccurs if people cannot see how their input matters to the group. It can beovercome by letting people understand how different group members rely/affecteach other, and assigning tasks to make them feel significant

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Not caring about group’soutcome

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Thisoccurs when person is not personally identified with the group, result of themfeeling rejected or perceiving group is unsuccessful or important. This can beovercome by making group’s goals clear, identifying and encouraging personalrelationships, making time forsocializing/ fun

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Feeling like others are nottrying very hard

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Peopleloaf if others loaf, and it can be overcomeby providing feedback about progress of each individual

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Social facilitation

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occurswhen one’s performance is affected by presence of others (e.g. Norman Triplett found cyclists ride fasterwhen racing against each other than trying to beat the clock, ants dig morewhen other ants work alongside, cockroaches move faster with more of them) notalways necessarily good, can result in “choked performance”

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Groupthink

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refersto this stifling of diversity that occurs when individuals are not able toexpress their true perspectives, instead having to focus on agreeing withothers and maintaining harmony in the group

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Normative influence

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asocial pressure to adopt a group’s perspective in order to be accepted, ratherthan rejected by a grou

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Informational influence

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occurswhen group of people internalize the values and beliefs of the group, coming tobelieve the same things and feel same ways themselves

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Bystander effect

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thepresence of other people actually reduces the likelihood of helping behaviour

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Latanteand Darley

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createddiffusion of responsibility

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diffusion of responsibility

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occurs when responsibility for taking action is spread across more than oneperson, thus making no single individual feel personally responsible

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Pluralistic ignorance

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occurswhen there is a disjunction between the private beliefs of individuals and thepublic behaviour that they display to others

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Social roles

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specificsets of expectations for how someone in a specific position should behave

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Explicit processes

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correspondroughly to “conscious” thought, are deliberative, effortful, relatively slow,and generally under our intentional control

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Implicit processes

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compriseour “unconscious thoughts”; they are intuitive, automatic, effortless, veryfast, and operate largely outside of our intentional control

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Dual process models

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models of behaviour that account for both implicit and explicit processes

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Person perception

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theprocess by which individuals categorize and form judgments about other people (e.g.person’s physical characteristic can activate schemas that bring certain traitsto our mind automatically)

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Thin slices of behaviour

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verysmall samples of a person’s behaviour (people can look at a guy’s face to seehis sexual orientation, or look at pics to see if people areRepublican—powerful faces or Democratic- warmer face)

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Self-fulfilling prophecies

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occurwhen a first impression (or an expectation) affects one’s behaviour, and thenthat affects other people’s behaviour, leading to one to “confirm” the initialimpression or expectation (your beliefs affect your actions, which affect otherpeople’s actions, which reinforces your beliefs)

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False consensus effect

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thetendency to project the self-concept onto the social world

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Naïve realism

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thetendency to assume that the way we see things is the way that they are

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Self-serving biases

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arebiased ways of processing self-relevant information to enhance our positiveself-evaluation (e.g. taking credit forour success but blaming others for our failures)

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Internal (dispositional)attribution

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wherebythe observer (you in your car) explainsthe behaviour of the actor (driver who cuts in front of you) in terms of someinnate quality of that person (being an aggressive jerk)

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External (situational)attribution

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theobserver explains the actor’s behaviour as a result of the situation

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Fundamental attributionerror (FAE)

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thetendency to overemphasize internal (dispositional) attributions, andunder-emphasize external (situational) factors

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Ingroups

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groups we feel positively toward and identifywith (e.g. family, best friends, home team)

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Outgroups

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thoseother groups that we do not identify with. (us vs. them)

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Ingroup bias

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positivebiases toward the self get extended to include one’s ingroups, people becomemore motivated to see their ingroup as superior to their outgroups

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Minimal group paradigm

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adescription of how easily people will form social categories, US vs. them, evenusing criteria that are meaningless (e.g. putting people in groups called X orY, or based on heads/tails)

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Stereotype

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acognitive structure, a set of beliefs about the characteristics that are heldby members of a specific social group; these beliefs function as schemas,serving to guide how we process information about our social world

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Prejudice

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anaffective, emotionally driven process, including negative attitudes toward andcritical judgments of other groups (reinforced by negative stereotypes)

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Discrimination

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behaviourthat disfavours or disadvantages members of certain social group in some way

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Implicit Association Test

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measureshow fast people can respond to images or words flashed on a computer screen (averageresponses faster when Black is paired with negative word and White is pairedwith a positive word)

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Contact hypothesis

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predicts that social contact between membersof different groups is extremely important to overcoming prejudice

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Elaboration likelihoodmodel

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predictswhen audiences are sufficiently motivated to pay attention to a message (i.e. they care about the issue) andthey have the opportunity for careful processing (i.e. they have the cognitiveresources available to understand the message), they will be persuaded by thefacts of the argument, the substance; when either of these two factors,motivation and opportunity, are missing, people will tend to be persuaded byother factors k

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Central route to permission

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occurswhen people pay close attention to the content of a message, evaluate theevidence presented, and examine the logic of the argument

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Peripheral route topermission

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occurswhen persuasion depends upon other features that are not directly related tothe message itself, such as the attractiveness of the person delivering theinformation, or sheer amount of information such as number of arguments made

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Construal-level theory

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describeshow information affects us differently depending on our psychological distancefrom the information

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Identifiable victim effect

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describeshow people are more powerfully moved to action by the story of a singlesuffering person than by information about whole group of people

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Identifiable victim effect

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describeshow people are more powerfully moved to action by the story of a singlesuffering person than by information about whole group of people

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Experimental system

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operatesmore implicitly, quickly, and intuitively and is predominately emotional; theemotional system responds to personal experiences, images, stories, and otherpeople’s emotions

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Analytic system

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operatesmore at explicit level of consciousness, is slower and more methodical, and useslogic and discursive thinking (i.e. reasoning using language) to try tounderstand reality

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Attitude inoculation

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astrategy for strengthening attitudes and making them more resistant to changeby first exposing people to a weak counter-argument and then refuting thatargument

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Processing fluency

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theease with which information is in processed. Even insignificant aspects of acommunication can, through negative affect, influence the communication’spersuasive impact

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Socialvalidation

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whenBill McKibben’s organization got 1 million signatures for Obama to not letKeystone XL pipeline transport oil from Canada to USA

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door-in-the-face technique

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involvesasking for something relatively big, then following with a request forsomething relatively small

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Foot-in-the-door technique

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involvesmaking a simple request followed by a more substantial request (opposite ofdoor-in-the face cause that’s big request then small)

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LeonFestinger

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createdCognitive dissonance theory

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Cognitive dissonance theory

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describeswhen we hold inconsistent beliefs this creates a kind of aversive inner tensionor “dissonance”; we are then motivated to reduce this tension whatever way wecan (what if feeling, or having to do small white lie experiment)