Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
70 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
key terms (4) |
1. Hypothesis 2. Theory 3. Constructs 4. Operation Definition |
|
|
Hypothesis |
A testable statement describing the realation between two or more constructs |
|
|
Theory |
A set of interrelated hypothesis that is used to explain a phenomenon and make predictions |
|
|
Constructs |
Abstract qualities that we attempt to measure |
|
|
Operation dfinition |
Statement of the process we used to measure constructs |
|
|
Ways of Knowing(5) |
1. Logical Analsysis 2. Authority 3. Consensus 4. Observation 5. Past experiene |
|
|
Mehl et al. 2007 in Science |
Common knowledge that omen talk more than men |
|
|
Science is Process |
Science is a way of thinking much more than it is a body of knowledge (Carl Sagan) |
|
|
Method of Science (Definition, Method, Key to Science) |
Try to show that the consequences of a given theory are not empirically supported. (Use Modus Tollens) Refuttatuib and Replication are key to science |
|
|
Deduction and Induction |
|
|
|
Card Selection Task (4 cards; letter/ number) |
Wason, 1996 |
|
|
Deductively Valid Arguments |
Modus Ponens (Mode that Affirms) Modus Tollens ( Mode that Denies) |
|
|
Scientific Reasoning (Refutation) |
According to Popper, falsification is the line of demarcation between science and non-science. we can show that the consequenves of a theory are not empirically supported. Modus Tollens
|
|
|
There is no more rational procedure than the method of trial and error- of conjecture and refutation: of boldly proposing theories; of trying our best to show that these are errorneous; and of accepting them tentatively if our critical efforts are unseuccessful |
Popper 1968 |
|
|
Replication |
A keystone of psychological research is the principal of replication Studies are done multiple times by different people to see if we get the same results |
|
|
The great tragedy of science- the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by anugly fact |
Thoas H. Huxley (1825-185) |
|
|
Controversial ESP Study Fails Yet Agai |
DISCOVER NEWS |
|
|
The Scientific Method (6) |
1. Make an observation 2. Develop a hypothesis (prediction for why it happens) 3. Test your hypothesis (operational definition) 4. Conduct study (Variable/ Independent V/ dependent V) 5. Replicate and Extend 6. Develop a theory |
|
|
Conduct a study (3) |
1. Variables : any attribute that changes values across things that are being studied 2. Independent Variable: the variable you manipulate 3. Dependent variable: the variable you expect to change by manipulating the independent variable |
|
|
Inattentional blindness |
individuals may fail to notice changes in their environment when focused on a task |
|
|
Internal Validity |
does the study allow us to make causal conclusion? Can we conclude that people suffer from inattentional blndness? |
|
|
External Validity |
Can these results be generalized to populations and setting we are interested in? Will the same thing happen to different people and in different settings? |
|
|
Tuskegee Syphilis Study |
Syphilis: Sexually Transmitted Diseases 1932-1972, longtitudinal study was conducted in Macon Country, Alabama African American perticipants were promised to be given free examination and treatment, but never recieve the treatment. |
|
|
Why is Tuskegee Syphilis Study problem? |
Ethical issues: never given the choice to quit the study once the benefits of penicillin were known to researchers.
|
|
|
The 8 men who are surbibors of the syphilis study at Tuskegee are a living link to a time not so very long ago that we dare not forget. It was a time when our antion falied to live up to its ideals, when our nation broke the trust with our people that is the very foundaton of our democracy...without remembering it, we cannot make amends and we cannot go forward |
Public Outcry Bill Clinton (16 May 1997 ) |
|
|
Lawsuits and Aftermath |
the NAACP initiated a lawsuit that resulted in a settlement that gave more than $9 million to the study participants. The U.S. government promised to give free medical and burial services to all living participants (1973)
Tuskegee Health Benefit Program was established to provide these services. The Centers for Diseas Control and Prevention was given responsibility for the program National Research Act in 1974 establised the rule that all federally funded research involving human participants must be approved by an Institutional Review Board |
|
|
Outcomes of Tuskegee |
National Research Act in 1974 established the rule that all federally funded research involving human participants must be approved by an Institutional review Board (IRB) |
|
|
Belmont Report |
Created on 18 April 1979- nmed after the Belmont Conference Center in Elkridge, Maryland
Articulated 3 "basic ethical principles" 1. Resp relevant to research involving human participants |
|
|
3 "basic ethical principles" |
1. Respect for Persons 2. Beneficence 3. Justice |
|
|
Respect foe Persons : 2 incorporates principles |
1. Individuals should be treated as autonomous agents 2. Individuals with diminished capacity should be protected
: basis for the concept of informed consent |
|
|
Informed Consent |
Information must be easily understood so people can make an informed decision Avoid hyperclaming or stating that research is likely to achieve goals that it is unlikely to achieve In most vases, the informed consent must be a signed documents |
|
|
Respect for Persons [needs to to include...] |
1. Confidentiality [no disclosure ] 2. Anonumity
|
|
|
Limit of Confidentiality |
1. Duty to warn Researchers are required to report some behaviors to authorities (eg. suicidal individual/ Child, Spouse, or Elderly Abuse) 2. Courts could subpoena info about illegal behavior (one instance where the requirement for signed informed consent documents could be waived)
|
|
|
When is Deception Permisseible?
According to APA (American Psychological Association), it is permisible to use deception under 3 conditions: |
1. The research is important 2. There are no alternatives 3. There is no foreseeable harm to participants |
|
|
Beneficence (2 keys) |
Second principle in the Belmont Report Researchers should not harm their participants 2 Key: risk / benefit analysis Risk in social science research are often not as high as in biomedical research |
|
|
Justice |
3rd principle in the Belmont Report related to the participants used in research the principle suggests that the sample should be representative should not use disadvantaged groups just because they are convenient (sick people, prisoners, the institutionalized) related to the use of control group (in some cases, not providing a useful treatment could be considered unethical) |
|
|
Behavioral Study of Obedience |
Milgram (1963) Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology |
|
|
Procedure from Milgream (1963) [4steps] |
1) 40 male participants are told that the study is about memory and learning 2) Random draw to see who is the teacher and who is the learner. The learner is a confederate 3) Teacher is put in front of an electronic shock generator with a range of voltage levels (range 15 to 450 volts) 4) At 300 volts the Learner pounds on the wall |
|
|
Classical conditioning |
Little Albert |
|
|
Ethical Issues and goal |
Research with vulnerable populations requires special consideration by the IRB 1) Includes individuals who may be "at-risk" 2) e.g. prisoners, children, pregnant women, fetuses The goal is to make sure that the researcher is not taking advantage of the group |
|
|
Belmont Report (3) |
Respect for Persons Beneficence Justice |
|
|
Was this Ethical? |
What is research? "a systematicc investigation including research development, testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge" |
|
|
Contributes to Generalizable Knowledge |
what constitutes a contribution to "generalizable knowledge"? Does data collected in the classroom? Does data collected in an organization?
|
|
|
What is Human Subjects? |
Definition: living individual about whom an investigator (whether professional or student) conducting research obtains data through intervention or interaction with the individual, or identifiable private information
Also important because it impacts the need for IRB approval |
|
|
What Constitutes "Human Subjects"? |
1) Living individual 2) "about whom" : data must be collected about them 3) "identificable private information" -public behavior can be observed without IRB approval -As long as the individual does not intervene |
|
|
Who cares about Statistics? |
Sally Clark Case (R v. Sally Clark, 1999) Women convicted of murdering her 2 children Both died of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) Experts testifired that the probablity of on echild dying of SIDS was 2 in 8543 |
|
|
Who Cares about Statistivs? |
According to the expert, the probability of two SIDS deaths in one family was 1 in 73 million (1 in 8543^2) Convicted and sentenced to 2 life sentences But, this is completely wrong! The experts did not udnerstant probablity theory Conviction was later overturned (2003) |
|
|
Peter Donnelly TED talk on how states fool juries |
|
|
|
Monty Hall Problem |
Suppose you're on a game show, and you're given the choice of 3 doors: Behind one door is a car; behind the others, goats. You pick a door, say No. 1, and the host, who knows what's behind the doors, opens another door, say No. 3, which has a goat. He then says to you, "Do you want to pick door No.2?" Is it to your advantaage to switch your choice? |
|
|
Statistics |
Descriptive statistics: "describe" the distribution of the data e.g. Intelligence in the general population Inferential statistics: are used to answer questions about the data e.g. Graduate School Admissions |
|
|
Descriptive Stateistics |
Measures of central tendency: 1. Mean: 2. Median: the point at which 50% of the cases fall above and below 3. Mode: Most frequent number in the distribution |
|
|
variance (s^2) is the sum of the squared deviations from he mean divided by the number of cases -1. |
|
|
|
Standard Deviation, s (SD) is the square root of the variance. |
|
|
|
Z Scores |
Standard scores are derived by converting observed raw scores using some reference mean and standard deviation. The z score conversion is commonly used in psychology. |
|
|
What z score tells me |
z-score tells me where a score is within a distribution,
z-score can help me to determine how rare a finding is
The value of the z-score corresponds to the number of standard dviations between the obsevation and the mean of the distribution |
|
|
What does + or - in z-score tells me? |
identifies whether the observed value is located above the man (positive) or below the mean (negative) |
|
|
Statistical Significance |
Describes how likely it is tha this result would be observed by chance
p<.05 |
|
|
Confidence Interval |
are an alternative to significance tests
Confidence intervals give us a range of values that we would expect our observations to fall within if we conducted our study multiple times
Instead of dichotomous significance decision, ewe can see the distribution of our observations. |
|
What does this mean? |
This means that we would expect 95% of our obsebations across multiple studies to be between 3.04 and 3.66. |
|
|
Who made Correlation Coefficient? |
Karl Pearson (1896)
|
|
|
What is Correlation Coefficient |
it measures the degree of linear association between 2 variables. Range from -1.0 to 1.0 Negative: As X increases Y decresaes Positive: As X increases Y increases |
|
|
Rule of Thumb |
+/-.10 is Small +/-.30 is Medium +/-.50 is Large
Use these with care. These guildelines only provide a loose framework for thinking about the size of correlations
Cohen(1988) and Kline (2004) |
|
|
Golden Rule of Social Science |
Correlation does NOT prove causation (However, causation can imply correlation)
Big Issue: Third Variable Problem |
|
|
Examples of positive correlations |
ice cream sales and shark attack stork population and birth rates Height and job performance Eating candy as a cihld and violent behavior as an adult Life span and everything |
|
|
Inferential Statistics- Prediction |
sometimes we want to be able to take all of the info that we have and predict what someone wil do Often done using regression analysis The end goal is to create a model of variables that are correlated with the oucome |
|
|
Inferential Statistics-Prediction (2basic ways of combining variables to predict behavior) |
Clinical vs. Mechanical prediction |
|
|
Difference between Mechanical and Clinical Methods |
Mechanical methods use a formula to combine the info (may just be a sum or average) e.g., Grad School Admissions Clinical methods use a human judge to combine the info based on his or her judement e.g., Therapy |
|
|
Meehl's (1954) |
Mechanical methods produce superior decisions out of 20 studies, statistiacl judgement was equal to or better than clinical judgement Because the statistical method is much less constly, statistically judgement seems to be the winner when they were equal
Expert for "broken legs" |
|
|
Grove and Meehls (1996) |
They found that out of 136 studies: 64 favored statistical judgement 64 found that statitical and clinical were about equal 8 favored clinical judgement The clinician's expeience did not make a difference
|
|
|
Goldberg (1970) |
Goldberg (1970) took 29 clinician's ratings of MMPI profilies for psychosis versus neurosis Used theier ratings as the weights in the regression equation the equation created using the clinician's own weights were more accurate than any of the clinicians Suggents that the reason equations are so much ore accurate is that people are inconsisitent at combining info |
